LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

Shelf .if .k.5 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



THE WHITE PINE 



THE WHITE PINE 

A STUDY 



WITH TABLES OF VOLUME AND YIELD 



GIFFOED PINCHOT 

AND 

HENEY S/GEAVES 




A^V* ^^'"'^'^^ '"''"A 
MAY 4 ^B96 ' 



NEW YOEK 
THE CENTUEY CO. 
1896 



Copyright, 1896, by 
The Century Co. 



The DeVinne Press. 



PREFACE 

The inquiry upon which this study of the 
White Pine is based was made possible through 
the public-spirited and generous cooperation of 
Mr. William E. Dodge, Mr. D. Willis James, and 
Mr. James W. Pinchot. The fund which they 
subscribed was placed in the hands of Mr. 
Henry S. Graves, by whom the notes and mea- 
surements summarized in the following pages 
were collected in the field. 

During the summer and autumn of 1894 the 
work was prosecuted on the ground, and for 
two months of that time Mr. Graves was assisted 
by Mr. P. F. Nash, Jr., who gave his enthusi- 
astic and helpful services entirely without cost 
to the fund. After the conclusion of the field 
work, the delicate and laborious task of calcu- 
lation and tabulating the results was carried on 
by Mr. Graves, and by him brought to an end. 
He also prepared the silvicultural notes, based 
on his observations, which were used as the 
framework of the letter-press of this study ; and 
the small tables in the text are wholly his own. 

V 



vi 



PREFACE 



The general plan of the work and the detailed 
instructions according to which the notes and 
measurements were taken originated with the 
undersigned. He is also responsible for such 
criticism as his experience suggested, and for 
the ultimate form into which the conclusions 
have been cast. He wishes to express, both for 
Mr. Graves, now prosecuting his forest studies 
abroad, and for himself, a deep sense of obliga- 
tion to the gentlemen whose wise and kindly ac- 
tion has resulted in this first systematic descrip- 
tion of the growth of a North American tree. 

Sincere thanks are also due to Dr. W. Schlich 
for the table taken from his Manual of Forestry, 
and to Prof. C. S. Sargent, who has been kind 
enough to look over the proof of Chapter III., 
and to bring such of the Latin names as have 
recently been changed into conformity with the 
latest progress of botanical nomenclature. Prof. 
Sargent is not responsible, however, for the 
omission of capital letters in certain of the 
specific names. 

Mr. Morris K. Jesup has been good enough to 
permit the use of a drawing from which the de- 
sign on the cover has been adapted, and Mr. 
Romeyn B. Hough has kindly furnished the 
photograph of a first-growth Adirondack Pine 
reproduced in the frontispiece. 



PREFACE 



vii 



The facts and conclusions here presented, 
based as they are on a short period of observa- 
tion and a comparatively restricted number of 
measurements, must of necessity be susceptible 
of enlargement, and perhaps of correction also, 
as the result of more extended investigations. 
Meanwhile, observations and measurements 
which may be forwarded to the address below 
will be exceedingly welcome, whether they tend 
to confirm these conclusions or to disprove them. 
Any material bearing upon the contents of this 
study, or upon any phase of the life, growth, or 
utilization of the White Pine, will be very gladly 
received. 

The motive which gave rise to this attempt, 
in the minds of all those who have shared in 
the work, was the desire to assist in making 
clear the real nature of forestry, in exciting an 
interest in the subjects with which it deals, in 
stimulating others to similar research, and, 
above all, in facilitating and hastening the gen- 
eral introduction of right methods of forest 
management, by which alone our forests can be 
saved. 

GiFFORD PiNCHOT. 

Grey Towers, Milford, Pa., 
March 7, 1896. 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 

Introduction 1 

GrROWTH 4 

Situation and Occurrence — 14 

White Pine in Mixture 21 

Fire and Wind 33 

Volume Tables 37 

Contents of the Stem with Bark in Cubic Feet, 

with Form Factors 44-45 

Contents of the Stem without Bark in Cubic 

Feet 48-49 

Merchantable Contents of the Stem in Cubic 

Feet 52-53 

Merchantable Contents of the Stem in Board 

Feet 56-57 

Yield Tables 58 

Valuation Surveys 64-71 

QuaHty I , 80-81 

Quality II 82-83 

Quality III 84-85 

Curves 87 

Curves for the Average Height of White Pine 

Groups 89 

Curves for the Diameter of the Average Tree 

in White Pine Groups 91 

Curves for the Volume of White Pine Groups, 

excluding Branches 93 

Curves for the Volume of White Pine Groups, 

excluding Bark and Branches 95 

Curves for the Merchantable Yield of White 

Pine Groups, in Cubic Feet 97 

Curves for the Merchantable Yield of White 

Pine Groups, in Board Feet 99 

Table of Diameters and Areas of Circles 100 

ix 



THE WHITE PINE 



INTEODUCTION 



The silvicultural notes contained in this pam- 
phlet are intended both as a contribution to the 
natural history of the White Pine and its neigh- 
bors, and as a necessary adjunct to the tables. 
The latter are intended, in part, to enable stu- 
dents of the forest, lumbermen, and others to 
ascertain the volume of standing Pine per tree 
and per acre, in cubic and board feet, much 
more easily and accurately than has hitherto been 
possible, and to predict its increase in the same 
units for any desired number of years. By the 
use of these tables the relations between growth, 
interest on capital invested, and current expenses 
(such as taxes) cease to be matters of conjec- 
ture, and become susceptible of easy calcula- 
tion. Many other uses of the tables will be 
developed in the course of the discussion. 

The tables and silvicultural notes are based 
on measurements and other data obtained in 
central Pennsylvania and northern New York. 
The measurements of first- (or original-) growth 

White Pine were all made in Pennsylvania, and 
1 1 



2 



THE WHITE PINE 



iu localities where lumbering operations were 
in progress, so that the figures could be col- 
lected as the trees were felled and sawed into 
logs. Thus a large number of measurements 
were taken on Lick Run, Clearfield County, in 
the Pine Creek district of Lycoming County, and 
in a large windfall on Naval Run, a short dis- 
tance above Slate Run station, in Tioga County. 

The notes on the second-growth Pine were 
taken in Pennsylvania upon the high plateau 
south of Driftwood, Cameron County, near An- 
sonia in the Pine Creek district of Tioga County, 
and in Lycoming County on the plateau above 
Otter River. Valuation surveys of a few groups 
in Franklin and Clinton Counties, New York, 
were used in the preparation of the yield tables. 

The localities where the data were obtained 
varied in altitude from a few hundred to nearly 
two thousand feet above the level of the sea. 
A more detailed description of the habitat of 
the White Pine in central Pennsylvania will be 
found farther on. 

It should be noted that the area where the 
measurements were taken is comparatively re- 
stricted, and that the number of trees examined 
is not large in comparison with that used in the 
construction of tables for certain European 
trees. Nevertheless the scope of this study is 



INTEODUCTION 



3 



sufScient for the purpose in hand, and the cor- 
rectness of its results is indicated both by their 
normal character and by reference to indepen- 
dent measurements in board feet. It is confi- 
dently believed that they will be found to be 
reliable not only for the region where they 
were obtained, but also for other portions of 
the habitat of the White Pine. 

The point on the trunk of a tree hereafter in- 
dicated as ^^breast-high'' is four and one half 
feet from the surface of the ground. 

The White Pine {Pimcs strohus, Linnmus) in 
cultivation abroad bears the name of Wey- 
mouth Pine, after Lord Weymouth, who planted 
it in quantity at Longleat in Wiltshire, shortly 
after its introduction into England in 1705, and 
afterward distributed the seed. 



I 



GROWTH 

It is said that the very old and mature White 
Pine, called Pumpkin Pine by the lumbermen, 
has been almost entirely removed from the 
forests of Pennsylvania. Those old trees which 
remain are known under the name of first- 
growth or original Pine. They are character- 
ized, especially when growing pure in crowded 
woods or in mixture with Hemlock, by great 
height and long, clean shafts, and they yield 
timber of the finest quality. This first-growth 
timber is for the most part from 200 to 250 
years old, although trees of over 300 years 
occur. One magnificent specimen among the 
trees whose age was ascertained was found to 
be 351 years old. It was still perfectly sound. 
The dimensions of this tree are worth noting, 
since it is the largest Pine measured in the 
course of this investigation. They are : diam- 
eter at 4^ feet from the ground, 42 inches; 
total height, 155 feet; length of merchantable 
log, 114 feet. The total volume of the stem 
was 574 cabic feet, and it scaled 3,335 feet board 
measure of merchantable lumber. 

4 



GROWTH 



5 



The height of the great majority of old trees 
measured was between 100 and 120 feet, and 
the diameter was from 20 to 30 inches. 

In these mature trees the percentage of wood 
which cannot be cut into logs is comparatively 
small. In most cases logs are considered mer- 
chantable which have a diameter of 8 inches at 
the small end. Very often logs are taken down 
to 7 inches at the top, or, in the suppressed 
trees, which are almost without branches, even 
to 6 inches. The stumps are, on an average, 
about two feet above the level of the ground. 
The spread of the roots below this point is so 
great, and the difficulty and expense of cutting 
close to the ground on steep slopes so serious, 
that in most cases a shorter stump is out of the 
question. 

Up to a certain point the percentage of mer- 
chantable timber in a tree increases with the 
diameter. From a study of trees over 100 years 
old, the following figures were obtained : 



Diameter breast-high, in inches. 








10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 


34 


36 38 


40 


Percentage of merchantable timber, excluding bark 


AND 


BRANCHES. 




84.5 87 89 90 91 91.5 92 92.5 93 93.4 93.7 94 


94 


94 94 


94 



It appears from this table that only 6 per 
1* 



6 



THE WHITE PINE 



cent, of the wood in a trunk 40 inches in diam- 
eter breast-high is left in the forest as waste, 
while a tree ten inches in diameter loses more 
than two and a half times as much, under the 
same conditions. It may also be seen that the 
percentage of merchantable timber does not in- 
crease after the diameter has reached 32 inches, 
and that even at 26 inches it is within 1 per cent, 
of its highest point. 

The length of the crown, or that part of the 
whole stem upon which live branches are grow- 
ing, varies according to the situation of the 
tree. A Pine standing in the open, with plenty 
of light and growing space, has, as a rule, a 
very large, full crown. On the other hand, 
when trees occur in crowded groups the spread 
of the top is hindered, the lower branches die 
for want of light, and the crown becomes narrow 
and short. The average length of crown of 
Pines over 100 years old growing in dense 
groups varied from 15 to 35 per cent, of the 
total length of the tree. For the same trees 
the length of shaft clear of all branches, alive 
or dead, was from 50 to 80 per cent, of the 
total length. 

When trees grow in crowded groups the 
growth in diameter is reduced, and the height 
growth, to a certain limited extent, is increased. 
Such trees yield a better product not only be- 



GROWTH 



cause of the long clean boles ; the wood itself is 
of greater density and strength. This may be 
explained as follows : 

In the annual rings of trees two zones of wood 
may be distinguished. These are the spring 
wood, which is formed in the first part of the 
growing season, and is composed of large thin- 
walled wood cells, and the autumn wood, formed 
in the latter part, and made up of thicker- walled 
cells radially compressed. The spring wood is 
consequently the weaker, lighter, and softer of 
the two, since it is made up of cells which bear 
this character. The chief function of the spring 
wood is to conduct water from the roots to the 
crown. The autumn wood, while to a certain 
extent it also serves as a water-channel, has for 
its chief function to strengthen the stem. The 
larger the crown of a tree, and therefore the 
larger the evaporating surface in the leaves, 
the greater will be the demand for water, and^ 
consequently the greater the need for water- 
conducting organs. On the other hand, when 
trees grow in crowded groups, the crowns are 
smaller, the need for water-conducting organs 
is less, and the proportion of autumn wood is 
larger in the stem. The timber of the whole 
tree is therefore denser, stronger, and far less 
apt to rot. 

This view is fully confirmed by our observa- 



8 



THE WHITE PINE 



tions, for those trees which first showed decay 
at the butt were in almost all cases standing 
in open positions, with very large crowns, broad 
annual rings, and porous wood; while the old 
timber in dense groups mixed with hemlock 
was remarkably free from disease. 

On the other hand, the wood of old trees 
which have grown rapidly and homogeneously 
possesses qualities of preeminent value for cer- 
tain uses. 

The lumber length of a tree increases with 
the diameter. In the table which follows the 
lumber length is regarded as the length from 
the level of the ground to the uppermost end 
of the merchantable timber, which was taken at 
the point determined by the actual practice of 
the lumbermen in each case. For the sake of 
convenience in determining the lumber length 
of standing trees the stump has been disre- 
, garded. 



Diameter breast-high, in inches. 

10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 

Lumber length, in per cent, of total length. 

68.3 72 75.2 77.2 79 80.5 81.5 82.3 83 83.5 84 84.5 84.8 85 85.3 85.5 



This table presents in another form the re- 
latively smaller loss from trees of large diame- 



GKOWTH 



9 



ter under the present demands of the market. 
A glance at it shows that, while over 85 per 
cent, of the length of a tree 40 inches in diam- 
eter is valuable for lumber, the proportion falls 
to 80.5 per cent, at the diameter of 20 inches, and 
to 68.3 per cent, when the diameter is only 10 
inches. The comparatively slow increase of 
the percentage of lumber length after a diame- 
ter of 20 inches has been reached is interest- 
ing in connection with the slow rate of height 
growth in old trees. 

The thickness of bark on the White Pine va- 
ries with the situation, among trees of the same 
age, and is different on different sides of the 
tree. Pines standing in the open have thicker 
bark, as well as a larger diameter and thicker 
sap-wood, than those in crowded woods. On 
old trees the bark is often exceedingly thick. 
A conspicuous instance is supplied by the very 
old tree already mentioned. Its bark measured 
3.8 inches on the stump, whereas the average 
thickness for first-growth Pine is between one 
and two inches. On suppressed trees two hun- 
dred years old it is frequently as little as half 
an inch. 

In trees over one hundred years old the bark 
varies from 9 to 12 per cent, of the total vol- 
ume, and reaches an average of 11 per cent. 



10 



THE WHITE PINE 



Upon trees fifty years old the average is 13 per 
cent. Upon very young trees the bark is thin 
and tender, and easily injured, especially by 
fire. 

When a Pine is first cut there is little or no 
difference in the color of the sap- and the heart- 
wood. But upon exposure the heart-wood be- 
comes reddish-brown, because of the oxidation 
of foreign matter stored in the walls of the 
wood cells. The separation between the heart- 
and the sap-wood is, however, clearly distin- 
guishable on a White Pine stump, on account of 
the large amount of pitch which oozes from 
the sap-wood almost immediately after the tree 
is felled. 

The number of annual rings in the sap-wood 
increases with the age of the tree. The follow- 
ing table shows the average for the trees mea- 
sured in Pennsylvania : 



50 


75 


Agk. 

100 125 150 


175 


200 


225 


250 


17 


22 


XUMBER OF A>rSUAL RIXGS I 

25 29 32 


THE 
35 


SAP-WOOD. 

37 


40 


42 



It has been said that trees in the open have a 
broader sap-wood at the same age than those 



GROWTH 



11 



in dense forests. That it is absolutely wider in 
.such cases is usually true. But the diameter 
also is apt to be greater, and the proportion 
between its width and that of the sap-wood 
is not greatly changed. In general it is true 
that the percentage of the whole width in- 
cluded in the sap-wood decreases with the 
increase in diameter. The following table 
gives the average values for trees over 100 
years old: 









Diameter breast-high, in inches. 










10 


12 


14 16 


18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 


34 


36 


38 


40 






"Width 


OF SAP-WOOD ON THE STUMP, IN PER CENT. 


OF 


THE 












WHOLE DIAMETER. 










15.1 


14 


13 12 


11.1 10.3 9.6 8.9 8>.S 7.8 7.2 6.7 


6. 


2 5.8 


5.3 


4.8 



The decrease from 15.1 per cent, at ten inches 
diameter to 4.8 per cent, at forty inches is strik- 
ingly regular. 

Still more interesting and far more important 
is the relation of the sap-wood to the total vol- 
ume of wood in the stem. We find that, with 
increase in the diameter of a tree, the percen- 
tage of sap-wood falls off. The following table 
gives the average values obtained for trees over 
100 years old : 



12 



THE WHITE PINE 







DiAilETEB 


BKEAST-HIGH, IN 


INCHES. 




10 


12 14 16 


18 20 22 


24 26 28 


30 32 34 36 38 


40 




Volume of 


SAP-WOOD, EST PI 


K CENT. OF THE 


TOTAL VOLUME OF WOOD, 




37 


34 31.3 28.8 


26.6 24.6 22.9 


21.5 20.2 19.2 


18.2 17.5 16.8 16.1 15. c 


15 



Since the best grades of lumber are required 
to be free from sap-wood^ the figures in this ta- 
ble exhibit clearly one of the reasons why a 
better product is cut from large logs than from 
small ones. They show that in spite of the 
steady increase in the number of rings of sap- 
wood as a tree grows older, it forms a less and 
less important part of the whole bulk of the 
tree. 

First growth," or original growth," is taken 
to apply to all trees standing on land which has 
never been cut over, or better, all trees whose 
growth (if injury by fire is excepted) has never 
been influenced by human action. AUtreeswhich 
have taken their origin from the seed of the orig- 
inal Pine are included under the term " second 
growth." Second growth which occurs in situa- 
tions similar to those once occupied by the 
original Pine shows precisely the same character 
as the other at the same age. That which springs 
up on good soil in the valleys and on the lower 



GEOWTH 



13 



slopes of the mountains is very rapid in growth, 
as the annual rings of the original Pine show it 
to have been at a corresponding period. There is 
every reason to believe that this second growth, 
if allowed to continue its development under 
like circumstances with the first growth, will 
eventually be just as valuable. But at present 
the sap-wood is broad, and hence the name Sap 
Pine is given to the trees. 

Upon entering a group of young Sap Pine 
the attention is first attracted to the scrubby, 
knotty trees with heavy tops, while the small- 
crowned, long-boled trees may be overlooked by 
the casual observer. These large-crowned trees 
are advance growth, usually several years older 
than the main crop. The latter is often disre- 
garded altogether, and an unfavorable opinion 
of the second growth is based on trees which 
do not properly form a part of the forest. 



II 



SITUATION AND OCCURRENCE 

The original Pine which still remains in those 
parts of Pennsylvania covered by this investi- 
gation is found in limited quantities at the 
heads of the smaller streams and runs^ and in 
the more inaccessible parts of the mountains. 
A magnificent growth of White Pine once cov- 
ered the slopes of the mountains and the sides 
of the ravines, overshadowing and enclosing 
the smaller streams, and attaining its best de- 
velopment about their headwaters. It spread 
completely over many of the mountains, grow- 
ing in mixture with Hemlock, or, in places, 
nearly pure. Upon the best soils various hard- 
woods grew with it. Many of the steep slopes, 
where the soil is naturally poor and stony, are 
either absolutely bare, or covered with a growth 
of shrubs and worthless hardwoods, and capa- 
ble of being reclaimed only after many years. 

The old White Pine which furnished the 
data here employed was found upon the slopes 
of narrow, deep ravines, and at the heads of 
streams. It grew in mixture with Hemlock on 

14 



SITUATION AND OCCURRENCE 



15 



southern, western, or southwestern aspects; but 
became subordinate to the latter on the cooler 
slopes. In many cases White Pine was also 
found in abundance on northern slopes, but 
not as a rule. 

The bottoms of the deep ravines where the 
White Pine grows are usually occupied by Hem- 
locks, or such hardwoods as Yellow Birch, 
Chestnut, and Eed Maple, with an occasional 
Ash, and rarely a Yellow Poplar. Where the 
slope is very long and broken by a series of 
benches or small table-lands, the latter are 
often covered with Oaks and Chestnut, while 
the slopes themselves are clothed chiefly with 
Pine and Hemlock. At the top of the slopes 
the White Pine stops suddenly, and upon the 
very summit of the mountains, on poor soil, 
the Jack Pine usually takes its place. The 
Pitch Pine, as it is elsewhere and better named, 
grows, in many cases, to be a large, tall, clear- 
shafted tree, and pelds admirable timber for 
mine-props. At the heads of the runs the 
White Pine extends further back upon the 
mountain-tops, and often occurs scatteringly 
with the Jack Pine. 

The soil on these slopes is derived, for the 
most part, from the disintegTation of sandstone, 
and varies from coarse white sand to loamy 



16 



THE WHITE PINE 



sand, and in the better parts to sandy loam. 
The slopes are generally covered with flat sand- 
stone rocks. When the forest is removed, and 
the fires run over the ground, the little soil that 
once existed is burned and washed away, and 
a barren mass of rocks is left to receive the 
seed of the few straggling unsound trees left 
standing by the choppers. In the valleys and 
on many of the mountain-tops, where the soil 
is a fresh sandy loam, uncultivated and unpas- 
tured land is almost immediately clothed with 
a forest growth of Pine and hardwoods. In 
such soils the White Pine attains an admirable 
development. 

The remark may here be made that the White 
Pine, in favorable localities, retains its growth 
to a great age. Thus a number of trees stand- 
ing on good soils were measured, and found to 
be growing in height four to five inches a year 
at the age of two hundred years. These trees were 
still adding to their volume from 1.3 to 1.5 cu- 
bic feet of wood per annum. In one case a tree 
was found to be growing at the rate of nearly 
two cubic feet of wood annually at two hundred 
years of age. 

In general. White Pine thrives on a great va- 
riety of soils. It is found on the poorest, dri- 
est sand, on steep, rocky slopes, on the rich 



SITUATION AND OCCURRENCE 17 



vegetable earth of hollows and ravines, and 
again on moist clay flats and river bottoms. A 
strip of second-growth Pine frequently occurs 
on the brow of a hill from which old timber has 
been removed. Similar bodies are often found 
near the tops of slopes, sometimes on very poor 
soil. Upon better soils, where hardwoods were 
formerly mixed with the Pine, they take its 
place, at least for a time. The indications are 
very strong that the Pine, if left to itself, will 
at length resume possession of practically all 
the situations it occupied in the virgin forest. 

Old clearings and abandoned pastures, if 
they can be reached by the winged, wind-blown 
seed of some old tree, grow up at once with an 
incipient forest of young Pines. 

It results from this ability of the Pine to 
conquer new situations and resume possession 
of the old that the danger of its extinction as 
a timber tree in Pennsylvania is serious only 
on account of fire. The exhaustion of the sup- 
ply of old trees must not be taken to mean the 
destruction of the species. We have already 
seen that second growth in good situations does 
not differ at all in individual development from 
the trees of the original forest at the same age 
in similar places. The future of White Pine in 
Pennsylvania, even with mediocre protection, 

2 



18 



THE WHITE PINE 



and under almost any kind of management 
short of the worst, is very full of promise. 
That its present treatment fails to meet either 
of these moderate conditions is obvious. 

The young seedlings bear a good deal of 
shade provided they have germinated and grown 
under the cover of older trees. Those which 
have started in the open, on the other hand, are 
easily overgrown and killed by hardwood 
sprouts and fast-growing hardwoods from the 
seed. Many seedlings of White Pine were 
found suppressed and dying in these circum- 
stances at the age of about twelve to fifteen 
years. Other seedlings, on the contrary, under 
the cover of dense Pine and Hemlock w^oods, 
were alive and struggling even among the 
mountain Laurel. Where some side hght 
reaches the plants, they withstand a large 
amount of shade from above. One frequently 
sees young seedlings growing on decayed logs 
or stumps, or starting in the thick moss upon 
the rocks, extending their roots in search of the 
soil below. In open spots, along roadsides, and 
in old pastures and deserted fields, young 
growth is very common. 

It is probable that in only a few cases do those 
plants recover which had stood in dense shade, 
and have been suddenly exposed to the whole 



SITUATION AND OCCURRENCE 19 



effect of the sun and wind by the removal of 
the crop overhead. Their leaves are undevel- 
oped, and cannot perform the necessary assim- 
ilative functions under the changed conditions; 
nor are the plants themselves adapted to resist 
the dr3dng action of the sun and wind. 

A tree produces a full crop of seed when by 
the processes of its growth it has stored up in 
its cells a sufficient supply of digested plant 
food to furnish raw material for the fruit, when 
its blossoms succeed in ripening, and when other 
conditions, less clearly understood, are also 
favorable. When these things happen to a con- 
siderable proportion of any species in a forest at 
the same time, a seed-year is said to take place. 

From a study of several hundred seedlings it 
appears that the White Pine bears seed on an 
average once in from 3 to 5 years, but that no 
regular interval exists between seed-years. The 
occurrence of a heavy crop of seed in 1892 is 
recorded in the numerous seedlings of that year 
which carpet the openings and the edges of the 
woods. A great deal of seed ripened about 1840, 
for much of the second-growth Pine in Penn- 
sylvania, as well as in a number of other States, 
dates from that time. It is only possible, from 
our limited observations, to say that full seed- 
years occur only at long intervals. 



20 



THE WHITE PINE 



Trees in the open, it is well known, bear seed 
more frequently and in greater abundance than 
those in crowded groups, a fact evidently con- 
nected with their ampler crown and more nu- 
merous leaves. 



Ill 



WHITE PINE IN MIXTURE 

White Pine is seldom found perfectly pure in 
Pennsylvania, except on very limited areas. It 
is a general law that in the original forest a 
much greater variety of species occurs on the 
best than on the poorer soils. Thus, in the Sap 
Pine groups of the valleys there is a much 
larger number of species in mixture with Pine 
than in the original groups on the poorer soils 
of the mountains. 

The species which occurs most commonly 
mixed with the White Pine in Pennsylvania is 
the Hemlock {Tsuga canadensis^ Carr,), It forms 
a lower story under the Pine, the shorter height 
classes of which it equals in length. Seen from 
above or from a distance, such a mixed group 
appears densely stocked with Pine, whereas, 
upon entering the wood. Hemlock seems to pre- 
dominate. The Pine stretches above the Hem- 
lock, and although it hides the latter at a dis- 
tance, it is not noticed at first from below. 
Once the difference has been perceived, the dark 
reddish-brown bark of the Hemlock contrasts 



2* 



21 



22 



THE WHITE PINE 



strongly with the ashen-gray bark of the old 
Pine. 

The Hemlock is of very slow growth, and re- 
mains behind the Pine from its youth up. But 
it withstands much more shade than the latter, 
one result of which appears in its longer crown, 
and it continues to flourish under cover until 
finally it grows up among the Pine and clears 
it of its lower branches. This most useful result 
follows chiefly from the extreme sensitiveness 
of the lower branches of the Pine to any shade, 
and is accomplished to the height of the Hemlock. 

In dense old groups of Hemlock young growth 
is often found still thriving, but growing very 
slowly. This tree prefers northern and eastern 
slopes and cool situations. It reproduces itself 
easily. Young growth could be secured at will 
under forest management. Young seedlings 
are abundant even under very dense shade. 

Where the two occur together the practice of 
Pennsylvania lumbermen is to cut the Pine the 
first year, and the Hemlock in the following 
season. 

It is said that the Hemlock, if it is allowed to 
stand, dies off within a few years after the re- 
moval of the Pine. That this frequently hap- 
pens is true. It is accounted for partly by the 
sudden exposure of trees which have stood for 



WHITE PINE IN MIXTURE 23 



years in the shade under the protection of an 
upper story of White Pine, and partly by the 
drying out of the roots. The Hemlock has a 
shallow root system, and suffers severely when 
the soil about it is dried by exposure to the 
sun and wind. The same facts explain part of 
the injury to Hemlock by strong surface fires, 
an injury which could be avoided under forest 
management. 

It is easy to see how the Hemlock, in these 
old forests, might gradually replace the Pine 
through the operation of its wonderful capacity 
to endure shade. There are comparatively few 
Pine seedlings in such dense groups, whereas 
young Hemlock occurs in abundance. After 
the old Pine veterans die off it seems likely that 
the Hemlock will remain. In all probability 
the many pure or nearly pure Hemlock groups 
in these mountains originated through the sur- 
vival by the Hemlock of one species after an- 
other, because of its great shade-bearing 
powers. That bodies of Pine occur on land 
which the Hemlock would tend to occupy to 
its exclusion is often to be explained by the 
fact that, although it may once have been 
driven out, the Pine has returned in the wind- 
fall clearing made by a storm. The same result 
would follow a devastating fire. Such accidents 



24 



THE WHITE PINE 



exert an undoubted influence on the mixture 
and topographic distribution of species. 

Hemlock lumber is of great commercial im- 
portance in Pennsylvania, and is rapidly gain- 



FlG. 1. 




0 10 20 30 40 Years. 

WMte Pine. 

Norway Pine. 

Pitch. Pine. 

Hemlock. 



ing ground. A study of the silvicultural char- 
acter of the tree, and the construction of yield- 
and volume-tables for it, would probably be of 
much use. Since nearly pure Hemlock forest 
exists over large areas, the construction of such 
tables would present no difiSculty. 



WHITE PINE IN MIXTURE 25 



Of other coniferous trees, growing with 
White Pine in Pennsylvania, the Jack or Pitch 
Pine {Finns rigidaj Mill,) is the most com- 
mon. It inhabits poor soils on the tops of 
ridges and on high plateaus. It requires a great 
amount of growing space, and regularly estab- 
lishes itself in open groups. In intimate mix- 
ture with White Pine it is usually suppressed 
before reaching the age of fifty years. Occa- 
sionally it occurs in patches within White Pine 
groups. The ground under the Pitch Pine 
woods is almost always badly covered with 
shrubs and forest weeds. Thriving as it does 
upon the very poorest of soils, and withstand- 
ing fire better than any other tree of the region, 
the Pitch Pine abundantly deserves the atten- 
tion of foresters. 

The Norway or Red Pine {Pimis resinosaj 
Ait) resembles the White Pine in many re- 
spects. It occurs only scatteringly in the sec- 
tions of Pennsylvania under consideration. In 
rapidity of growth it is not far behind the 
White Pine, and it is further characterized by 
the production of excellent timber and a very 
straight stem. 

Yellow or Scrub Pine {Pimis virginiana, 
i^^^7Z.), was found so sparingly that no study of 
its growth was made. 



26 



THE WHITE PINE 



The Oaks are the most important hardwoods 
growing with the Pine, and of these the White 
Oak {Quercus alba, L,) demands most attention. 
Its qualities are too well known to require enu- 
meration. Its growth is much slower than that 
of the White Pine, and where it occurs in mix- 
ture with Pine it is, as a rule, somewhat older. 
The Pine then serves to force the height growth 
of the White Oak, and in such cases we find it, 
as well as other hardwoods, producing long 
clean trunks. White Oak occurs on all kinds 
of soil, even growing with the Rock Oak on 
steep rocky slopes. It is a common tree on the 
plateaus. 

Red Oak {Quercus rubra, L.) and Black Oak 
{Quercus veliitina, Lam.) are found in mixture 
with White Pine only on the better class of 
soils. The rate of growth of the two species 
was nearly the same, and for both it was better 
than that of the Rock Oak or White Oak. 

The Rock Oak or Chestnut Oak {Quercus pri- 
mis, L.) is intermediate in rapidity of growth 
between Black Oaks and White Oak. It 
reaches its best development on rich ground, 
yet occurs in abundance on poor soils, and 
is found mixed with Pine and Hemlock on 
steep rocky hills, of which it is a character- 
istic tree. 



WHITE PINE IN MIXTURE 27 

Hickory occurs but sparingly with White 
Pine, and then only on the best soils. White 

Fig. 2. 

Feet. 

60 

50 



40 



30 



20 



10 



0 10 20 30 40 Years. 

White Pine. 

Red Oak. 

Chestnut Oak. 

Pignut Hickory. 

White Oak. 



Hickory {Hicoria ovata, Britt. [Carya alha, 
Nutt,] ) showed a slightly better growth than 
Pignut Hickory [Ricoria glabra, Britt [Carya 
porcina, Nutt] ), as far as was observed. 




28 THE WHITE PINE 

The Chestnut {Castanea dentata, BorcTc.) is 
found abundantly with White Pine on both 
good and very poor soils. Its growth in youth 
is very rapid. 

Fig. 3. 

Feet. 

60 

50 



40 



30 



20 
10 



0 10 20 30 40 Years. 

White Pine. 

Chestnut. 

Tronwood. 

Beech. 

Yellow Birch {Betttla lutea, Michx, /.) is found 
in the bottoms of the ravines^ and on good soils. 
Black Birch {Betula lenta, L.) and White Birch 
{Betula papyrifera. Marsh.) also occur. 




WHITE PINE IN MIXTURE 29 



One of the commonest species growing in 
mixture with White Pine, in all situations and 
on all kinds of soil in central Pennsylvania, is 
the Red Maple {Acer rubrum, L.). On good 



Fig. 4. 




0 10 20 30 40 Years. 



WMte Pine. 

White Asli. 

Black Birch. 

Black Cherry. 

soils Rock or Sugar Maple {Acer harhatum, 
Michx.) is also found. Its rate of growth is 
at least equal to that of the Red Maple, which 
it far surpasses in economic value. 



30 



THE WHITE PINE 



At a place in Lycoming County near Otter 
Run an astonishingly large number of kinds of 
trees occurred on a fresh sandy loam in mixture 

Fig. 5. 

Feet. 

60 

50 



40 



30 



20 



10 



0 10 20 30 40 Years. 

White Pine. 

Tulip Tree. 

Basswood. 

Red Maple. 

with White Pine. Upon an area of not more 
than twenty acres the following species were 
growing in natural forest : 

Yellow Poplar {Liriodendron tuUpifera, L.). 
Basswood {Tilia aynericana^ L,), 
Sugar Maple (Acer barhatum, Michx.), 
Red Maple (Jeer mhnim, L.). 

Pin or Wild Red Cherry {Primus pennsylvanica, L, f.). 




WHITE PINE IN MIXTURE 31 



Wild Black Cherry (Prunus serotina, Ehrh,). 
Black Gum (Nyssa sylvatica. Marsh). 
White Ash (Fraxinus americanay X.). 
Slippery Elm (Ulmus fulva, Miclix.). 
Butternut {Juglans ciiierea, X.). 

Bitternut Hickory {Hicoria minima, Britt. ICarya amara, 
Nutt] ). 

White Hickory {Hicoria ovata, Britt. [Gary a alba, Nutt.'i ). 
Pignut Hickory (Hicoria glabra, Bf^itt. [Carya porcina, 

Nutt.'] ). 
White Oak (Quercus alba, L.). 
Chestnut Oak {Quercus prinus, X.). 
Red Oak {Quercus rubra, X.). 
Black Oak {Quercus velutina, Lam.). 
Chestnut {Castanea dentata, Borch.). 
Beech {Fagus ferruginea. Ait.). 
Hop Hornbeam {Ostrya vh^giniana, K. Koch.). 
Hornbeam {Carpiniis caroliyiiana, Walt.). 
White Birch {Betiila papyri/era, Marsh.). 
Yellow Birch (Betiila liitea, Michx.f.). 
Black Birch {Betula lenta, L.). 
Quaking Asp {PopiUus tremuloides, Michx.). 
Poplar {Populus grandidentata^ Michx.). 
Norway Pine {Pinus resinosa. Ait.). 
Pitch Pine {Pinus rigida, Mill.). 
Yellow Pine {Pinus virginiana. Mill.). 
Hemlock {Tsuga canadensis, Carr.). 

The following table gives the average height 
growth for a few of these species based on a 
comparatively small number of measurements. 
The trees were all growing on soil of the first 
grade for White Pine. It must be remembered 
that this table does not represent a thorough 
study of the trees in question, but results from 



32 



THE WHITE PINE 



the measurements of a restricted number of 
specimens growing in mixture with the Pine. 
These values are graphically represented in the 
figures by means of curves. 



OX^Ji Initio. 


AGE. 


10 




30 


40 


50 




HEIGHT IN 


FEET. 




White Pine 


7.4 


25.0 


41.5 


54.5 


64.5 


Norway Pine 


6.6 


22.3 


37.3 


49.5 


59.0 


Pitcli Pine 


5.3 


17.0 


28.6 


38.0 


45.0 


Hemlock 


1.1 


4.0 


8.0 


12.9 


28.0 


Red Oak 


9.8 


28.0 


43.0 


52.7 


59.4 


Cnestnut Oak 


9.8 


26.3 


40.3 


49.6 


55.9 


Wnite Oak 


6.5 


20.0 


34.0 


43.7 


49.9 


Pignut Hickory 


7.9 


23.0 


36.9 


45.9 


51.8 


Chestnut 


15.6 


33.8 


46.3 


54.0 


58.8 


Beech 


6.9 


19.9 


34.9 


47.9 


55.9 




8.9 


22.8 


36.4 


45.3 


51.3 


White Ash 


9.0 


26.3 


45.0 


56.0 


62.6 


Black Birch 


12.5 


31.0 


45.0 


54.1 


60.5 


Black Cherry 


8.1 


22.5 


36.0 


46.0 


52.8 


Tulip Tree 


15.7 


35.4 


51.0 


61.5 


68.1 


Basswood 


13.1 


29.1 


42.6 


52.8 


60.3 


Red Maple 


9.8 


23.9 


36.5 


46.9 


54.0 



IV 



FIRE AND WIND 

The worst enemy of the Pennsylvania wood- 
lands, and especially of the coniferous forests, 
is fire. Very few of the Pine woods visited in 
the course of this investigation were without 
traces of it. Although many of the fires run 
only upon the surface and do no direct harm 
to the timber itself, the indirect injury which 
results from burning the humus layer and dry- 
ing out the soil is very serious, and should not 
be overlooked. Such fires are often followed 
by a decrease in the rate of annual growth from 
which it may take the trees several years to re- 
cover. In very many other cases the injury to 
the tree is both direct and important. Often 
the bark of the butt is scorched or burned, and 
the cambium layer below it killed by heat. Then 
the bark loosens or drops away, and decay sets 
in soon afterward. 

When exposed to fire the young growth, with 
its delicate bark and foliage, is killed at once. 
Later on, when the trees have reached an age 
of forty to sixty years, and have formed thick 

3 33 



34 



THE WHITE PINE 



corky bark, many of them are comparatively 
safe from direct injury from moderate surface 
fires. But if a fire reaches the crown and burns 
the leaves, the tree does not sur\ive. Large 
bodies of second-growth Pine were examined 
which had been killed in this wav. 

After lumbering the danger from fire is very 
gi'eat, and especially where Hemlock has been 
cut, because of its heavy crown and great quan- 
tity of fine spray. As the tops lie on the ground, 
a large surface is thus exposed to the action of 
the wind and sun, and the whole mass becomes 
exceedingly inflammable. The crown of the 
Pine, on the other hand, is not only shorter, but 
it is generally very much broken by the fall of 
the tree. It furnishes, in consequence, far less 
material to feed a fire. It may be said in pass- 
ing that a very considerable source of danger 
would be removed if it were possible for lumber- 
men to break down the tops of lumbered trees. 
Standing, as they often do at present, propped 
clear of the ground on their leg-like branches, 
they become as dry as tinder and burn with an 
intense heat. The danger lasts long, for the 
tops rot very slowly. If they could be brought 
in contact with the ground their menace to the 
forest would speedily disappear. 

In the spring, under the infiuence of the warm 



FIRE AND WIND 



35 



dry southwest wind, fires are easily started. 
They burn most readily, and are most frequent^ 
on south and southwest slopes, and upon 
mountain-tops and ridges. Fires running down 
hill are often stopped by the damp moss and 
other vegetation under the dense cover of Hem- 
lock and Pine. When started at the bottom of 
a slope, a fire may either run up over the hill- 
side or it may follow some narrow ravine, which 
acts almost like a chimney to increase its power. 

The chief causes of fires are the desire for 
better pasture or a richer crop of huckleberries^ 
the carelessness of campers, recklessness in 
clearing land or burning a fallow, railroads, 
and malice. The country is so sparsely popu- 
lated that, even when the incendiary is known, 
it is practically impossible to secure evidence 
sufficient to convict. 

The usual method of fighting fires is back- 
firing, but the scanty population makes it both 
costly and difficult, in most lumber regions, to 
assemble men enough to offer successful resist- 
ance to extensive fires. Effective measures 
must look toward localizing the danger by 
cutting fire-lines, and the organization of 
systems of fire wardens or fire patrols. But 
these precautions are expensive, and without a 
strong public sentiment behind them they can 



36 



THE WHITE PINE 



never fully succeed. When the inhabitants of 
any region where fires occur become thoroughly 
alive and earnest in the desire to prevent and 
extinguish them, then the danger from that 
source will be in a fair way to disappear. 

White Pine is fairly wind-firm 5 much more 
so than Hemlock. Still it is often thrown by 
tornadoes and extraordinarily strong winds. 
In such cases lumbermen peel a strip of bark 
from the top of the stem throughout the lum- 
ber length. The rest of the bark becomes loos- 
ened and falls off, and the wood is saved from 
the attacks of borers. 



V 



VOLUME-TABLES 

During the few months spent in taking mea- 
surements of the White Pine 160 trees were com- 
pletely analyzed. In addition, some 60 speci- 
mens of other species growing in mixture with 
the White Pine were measured in order to ob- 
tain the course of the growth of height. The 
method of tree-analysis was as follows : 

After each tree was felled and cut into logs, 
the following measurements were taken : 

Distance of each cut from the ground. 

Total length. 

Length of the green crown. 
Lumber length. 
Clear length. 

Number of logs actually taken in practice. 

Thickness of the bark at each cut. 

Age and width of the sap-wood at each cut. 

Number of annual layers at each cut, count- 
ing inward from the bark on an average 
radius, and marking each ten-year point. 

Distance from the periphery to each ten-year 
point. 

3* 37 



38 



THE WHITE PINE 



Average diameter inside the bark. 

Note was made of the health of the tree, the 
character of the crown, the relative size of 
the tree in comparison with the trees abont 
it, the character of forest in which it stood, 
and the soil and situation. 

In order to obtain the total age of a tree, the 
number of years required by the young tree to 
grow to the height of the stump must be added 
to the number of rings counted on the latter. 
To this end, a large number of young seedlings 
were cut and measui'ed in each locality, and the 
number of years was ascertained which the 
young tree required to grow one, two, or thi^ee 
feet, or whatever the height of the stumps in 
question may have been. 

In calculating the volume of the tree, the 
branches are neglected, and only the stem is 
taken into account. Each section is treated as 
a frustum of a paraboloid and cubed by the 
formula 

where V is the volume, M and m the areas of 
the cu'cles at the ends of the sections, and h the 
leugth of the section. 

The top section, the volume of which is al- 



VOLUME TABLES 



39 



ways a small fraction of a cubic foot, is treated 
as a cone, and cubed by the formula 

FMxh 

where V is the volume, M the area of the last 
cut, and ^ the length of the last section. 

The stump is also included in the calculation 
of the total volume, but the flare of the roots is 
left out of account. The diameter at the ground 
is regarded as the diameter on the stump plus 
the diameter of the young seedling whose height 
is the same as that of the stump, and whose age 
is the number of years required for the seedling 
to grow to the height of the stump. 

The values in board feet were calculated by 
means of measurements taken at the small end 
of each log, from tables constructed by Doyle's 
Rule, the common standard of the region. Ac- 
cording to this rule the number of board feet in 
a log 16 feet long is found by subtracting 4 from 
the diameter inside the bark at the small end, 
expressed in inches, and squaring the result. 
Thus a 16-foot log 24 inches across the upper 
end inside the bark would contain 400 feet board 
measure, because 24—4=20, and 20x20=400. 
This rule is intended to give the quantity of 
square-edged one-inch boards which may be 



40 



THE WHITE PINE 



sawed from a log. It is a safe guide for saw- 
mill men, and it underestimates the possible 
number of feet, especially for logs of small 
diameter. 

The volume tables are constructed only for 
trees over 100 years old. As material for these 
tables we have the analyses of over 100 trees. 
From the analysis it is possible to compute the 
volume of a tree at successive ten-year periods 
during its whole life. Thus, in the case of a 
tree 200 years old, we can calculate its volume 
when it was 100, 110, 120, 130, . . . 190, 200 
years old. Consequently, for the construction 
of the tables we have the equivalent of eleven 
trees instead of one. 

It must be remembered that the volume ta- 
bles represent average values of trees taken 
from all qualities of soils and localities, and 
that they are intended chiefly for use in com- 
puting the volume of large groups, 

A form factor, or coef&cient of form, is the 
relation between the volume of a tree and the 
volume of a geometrical solid of the same diam- 
eter and height as the tree. It represents the 
taper of the tree. In this case the solid is a 
cylinder, and the form factor is a number by 
which the volume of a cylinder which has the 
same base and height as the tree must be mul- 



VOLUME TABLES 



41 



tiplied in order to obtain the volume of the tree. 

On account of the taper, the volume of the 
tree will be less than that of the cylinder, and 
therefore the form factor will be a decimal. 

If a is the area of the base, or the area of 
the circle corresponding to the diameter, the so- 
called basal area ; 

7^ the height of the tree ) 

V the volume ; and 

/ the form factor ; then 

r=axhxf; ovf=^ 

In this way the form factor was calculated 
for each tree ; the stem alone, with the bark on, 
being taken into account. 

With the increase of diameter the form fac- 
tors decrease. With trees of the same diameter 
no variation in the form factors occurred with 
increase in height sufBiciently regular to permit 
the formulation of a law. It was necessary, 
therefore, to accept the average value of all 
the different heights corresponding to each 
diameter. 

The form factors are given in the right-hand 
column of Table I, and are seen to vary from 
.508 to .420 as the diameters grow larger. 
There is at first a slight increase to .512, and 



42 



THE WHITE PINE 



then a regular falling off. The form factors for 
the bigger trees are rather large. The latter, 
in nearly all cases, were standing in full enjoy- 
ment of light and growing space, and their 
trunks had correspondingly little taper. Fur- 
thermore, the largest trees are some 250 years 
old, while the smallest are from 100 to 150 years 
younger. 

The values in Table I were obtained by the 
use of the form factors. The volume in each 
case is equal to the product of the basal area 
by the height multiplied by the form factor 
corresponding to the diameter of the tree. 

In order to test the accuracy of the form fac- 
tors, the trees actually measured were thrown 
into diameter classes of two inches, and the 
average heights were obtained for each diame- 
ter class by means of a plotted curve. The vol- 
ume was then computed by the use of the form 
factors, and the result compared with the actual 
measured volume of the trees. The error was 
only 2 per cent. 



VOLUME TABLES 



43 



Volume Tables for White Pine calculated 
for the whole contents of the stem with and 
without bark in cubic feet, and for the mer- 
chantable timber in cubic and board feet, toge- 
ther with form factors for the stem with bark. 



TABLE I 









VOLUME TABLE 


FOR WHITE PINE 


Diain« 
breast- 
high. 
Inches 
















HEIGHT OF 


THE 




70 
(U 


to 


oV 




90 


95 


100 


105 














CONTENTS OF THE 


STEM 


10 


18.0 


19.4 


20.8 


22.1 


23.5 












12 


26.1 


28.1 


30.1 


32.1 


34.2 


36.2 


38.2 








14 


35.4 


38.1 


40.8 


43.5 


46.3 


49.0 


51.7 


54.4 






16 




49.0 


52.5 


56.0 


59.4 


62.9 


66.4 


69.9 


73.4 


76.9 


18 






65.1 


69.4 


73.7 


78.1 


82.4 


86.8 


91.1 


95.4 


20 








84.0 


89.2 


94.5 


99.7 


105.0 


110.2 


115.4 


22 








99.5 


105.7 


111.9 


118.1 


124.3 


130.6 


136.8 


24 










123.1 


130.4 


137.6 


144.8 


152.1 


159.3 


26 












150.0 


158.3 


166.6 


175.0 


183.3 


28 














180.8 


190.3 


199.8 


209.3 


30 
















215.5 


226.3 


237.1 


32 




















266.6 


34 






















36 






















38 
40 























44 



TABLE I 



OVER 100 YEARS OLD 



TREE 


IN FEET 












Diam. 

breast- 
high. 

Inches 






120 


125 


130 


135 


1 Art 


t 4 K 
iiO 


150 


155 


Stem 
Factor 


WITH 


BARK IN CUBIC FEET 




























10 


.508 




















12 


.512 




















14 


.509 




















16 


.501 




















18 


.491 


120.7 


















20 


.481 


143.0 


149.2 
















22 


.471 


166.6 


173.8 


181.1 














24 


.461 


191.7 


200.0 


208.3 


216.6 


225.0 










26 


.452 


218.8 


228.3 


237.9 


247.4 


256.9 


266.4 








28 


.445 


247.8 


258.6 


269.4 


280.2 


290.9 


301.7 








30 


.439 


278.7 


290.9 


303.0 


315.1 


327.2 


339.3 


351.5 






32 


.434 


311.1 


324.6 


338.1 


351.6 


365.2 


378.7 


392.2 






34 


.429 




360.5 


375.5 


390.6 


405.6 


420.6 


435.6 


450.6 




36 


.425 






415.6 


432.1 


448.7 


465.3 


481.9 


498.5 




38 


.422 








476.5 


494.8 

1 


513.2 


531.5 


549.8 


568.1 


40 


.420 



45 



VOLUME TABLES 



47 



In the discussion of the bark it was said that, 
with a range of from 9 to 12 per cent., it aver- 
ages 11 per cent, of the total volume of trees 
over 100 years old. The figures in Table II 
were obtained simply by taking 89 per cent, of 
the values in Table I. 



TABLE n 



VOLUME TABLE FOR WHITE 


Diam. 


HEIGHT OF THE 






















breast- 


65 


70 


75 


80 


85 


90 


95 


100 


105 


110 


high. 












































Inches 


































CONTENTS OF 


THE 


STEM 


10 


16.0 


17.3 


18.5 


19.7 


20.9 












12 


23.2 


25.0 


26.8 


28.6 


30.4 


32.2 


34.0 








14 


31.5 


33.9 


36.3 


38.8 


41.2 


43.D 


AC f\ 


tot 

48.4 






16 




43.6 


46.7 


49.8 


52.9 


5o.O 


trn 1 


an n 


65.3 


68.4 


18 






57.9 


61.8 


65.7 




(O.O 


TT O 


81.1 


84.9 


20 








74.8 


79.4 


QA 1 


OCJ. 1 


yo.o 


98.1 


102.7 


22 








88.6 


94.1 


f\c\ a 

yy.D 


lua.i 


IIU.D 


116.2 


121.8 


24 










109.6 


llo.l 






135.4 


141.8 


26 












133.5 


140.9 


148.3 


155.8 


163.1 


28 














160.9 


169.4 


177.8 


186.3 


30 
















191.8 


201.4 


211.0 


32 




















237.3 


34 






















36 






















38 






















40 























i8 



TABLE II 



PINE OVER 100 


YEARS OLD 








TREE 


IN FEET 












Diam. 

breast- 
high. 
Inches 


115 


120 


125 


130 


135 


140 


145 


150 


155 


WITHOUT BARK IN CUBIC FEET 




















10 




















12 




















14 




















16 




















18 




















20 




loz.o 
















22 


14:0.0 


104:. / 
















24 


170.6 


178.0 


185.4 


192.8 


200.3 










26 


194.7 


203.2 


211.7 


220.2 


228.6 


237.1 








28 


220.5 


230.2 


239.8 


249.4 


258.9 


268.5 








30 


248.0 


258.9 


269.7 


280.4 


291.2 


302.0 


312.8 






32 


276.9 


288.9 


300.9 


312.9 


325.0 


337.0 


349.1 






34 




320.8 


334.2 


347.6 


361.0 


374.3 


387.7 


401.0 




36 






369.9 


384.6 


399.3 


414.1 


428.9 


443.7 




38 








424.1 


440.4 


456.7 


473.0 


489.3 


505.6 


40 



4 



49 



VOLUME TABLES 



51 



On page 5 the percentages of merchantable 
timber in the whole stem, without bark, are 
given for the various diameters. Table III is 
constructed from Table II by the use of these 
values. 



TABLE III 



VOLUME TABLE FOR WHITE 


Diam. 

breast- 
high. 
Inches 


HEIGHT OF THE 


65 


70 


75 


80 


85 


90 


95 


100 


105 


110 


MERCHANTABLE CONTENTS OF 


10 


13.5 


14.6 


15.6 


16.6 


17.7 












12 


20.2 


21.8 


23.3 


24.9 


26.5 


28.0 


29.6 








14 


28.0 


30.2 


32.3 


34.5 


36.7 


38.8 


40.9 


43.1 






16 




39.2 


42.0 


44.8 


47.6 


50.4 


53.2 


56.0 


58.8 


61.6 


18 






52.7 


56.2 


59.8 


63.2 


66.7 


70.3 


73.8 


77.3 


20 








68.4 


72.7 


77.0 


81.2 


85.6 


89.8 


94.0 


22 








81.5 


86.6 


91.6 


96.7 


101.8 


106.9 


112.1 


24 










101.4 


107.4 


113.3 


119.2 


125.2 


131.2 


2d 












124.2 


131.0 


137.9 


144.9 


151.7 


2o 














150.3 


158.2 


166.1 


174.0 


30 
















179.7 


188.7 


187.7 


32 




















223.1 


34 






















36 






















38 






















40 


















1 





52 



TABLE in 



PINE 


OVER 100 


YEARS OLD 








TREE 


IN FEET 












Diam. 
breast- 
high. 
Inches 


115 


120 


125 


130 


135 


140 


145 


150 


155 


THE STEM IN CUBIC FEET 




















10 




















12 




















14 




















16 




















18 


98.3 


















20 


117.1 


122.2 
















22 


137.2 


143.1 


149.1 














24 


158.7 


165.5 


172.4 


179.3 


186.3 










26 


181.8 


189.8 


197.7 


205.7 


213.5 


221.5 








28 


206.6 


215.7 


224.7 


233.7 


242.6 


251.6 








30 


233.1 


243.4 


253.5 


263.6 


273.7 


283.9 


294.0 






32 


260.3 


271.6 


282.8 


294.1 


305.5 


316.8 


328.2 






34 




301.5 


314.1 


326.7 


339.3 


351.8 


364.4 


376.9 




36 






347.7 


361.5 


375.3 


389.3 


403.2 


417.1' 




38 








398.7 


414.0 


429.3 


444.6 


459.9 


475.3 


40 



4x 



53 



54 



THE WHITE PE^ 



Table IV is the most important of the series 
for practical use. It was constructed from 
Table I in the manner explained in the para- 
graphs which follow. 

Inasmuch as one board foot is a board one 
foot long, one foot wide, and one inch, or of 
a foot, thick, one cubic foot must be equal to 12 
board feet of solid wood. 

The actual measurements of the trees in board 
feet according to Doyle's Rule were thus reduced 
to cubic feet by dividing by 12, and the rela- 
tion between the figures obtained and the total 
volumes of wood and bark given in Table I were 
computed. The result was as follows : 



DiAMETEK BREAS 


T-HIGH, IN INCHES. 






10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 


26 28 30 32 


34 


36 38 40 


Board feet reduced to cubic feet 


IN PERCENTAGE OF 


THE 


TOTAL VOLUME 


OF WOOD 


AND BARK, 






12 18 23 26 29 32 35 38 


40 42 44 45 


46 


47 48 49 



This table gives the percentage of loss in 
manufacturing lumber from the standing tree 
on the basis of the common standard of measure. 
It shows an accidental but appreciable relation 
between the diameter in inches and percentage 
of wood actually used in commerce at the dif- 
ferent diameters. But its chief value is in ex- 
hibiting the enormous loss under the present 



VOLUME TABLES 



55 



methods. Less than half the cubic contents of 
a White Pine forty inches in diameter reaches 
the market from the saws, and when the diam- 
eter sinks to ten inches, eighty-eight per cent, 
of the tree is lost. It should be repeated here 
that Doyle's Rule gives a much smaller num- 
ber of board feet, in proportion to their cubic 
contents, to small logs than to larger ones, and 
that on the whole it tends to understate the 
possible lumber product from logs. 

The values in Table I were multiplied by the 
percentages just given, and the results were 
multiplied by twelve, in order to convert them 
back to board feet. 

The diameter and height of a tree being 
known, Table IV shows at a glance its mer- 
chantable contents. Where the height and the 
diameter must be estimated, as is usually the 
case, it furnishes an easy and accurate method 
of determining the equivalent of these estimates 
in board measure. 



TABLE IV 



VOLUME TABLE FOR WHITE 


Diam. 

breast- 
high. 
Inches 


HEIGHT OF THE 


65 


70 


75 


80 


85 


90 


95 


.100 


105 


110 






































BOARD 


FEET 


10 


26 


28 


30 


32 


34 












12 


56 


61 


65 


69 


74 


78 


83 








14 


98 


105 


113 


120 


128 


135 


143 


150 






16 




153 


164 


175 


185 


196 


207 


218 


229 


240 


18 






227 


242 


256 


272 


287 


302 


317 


332 


20 








323 


343 


363 


383 


403 


423 


443 


22 








418 


444 


470 


496 


522 


549 


575 


24 










561 


595 


627 


660 


694 


726 


26 












720 


760 


800 


840 


880 


28 














911 


959 


1,007 


1,055 


30 
















1,138 


1,195 


1,252 


32 




















1,440 


34 






















36 






















38 






















40 























56 



TAB.uE IV 



P NE OVEjt 100 YEARS OLD 










T3 EE 


IN FEET 














Diam. 
breast- 
high. 
Inclies. 


15 


120 


125 


130 


135 


140 


145 


150 


155 


B DOYLE'S 


RULE 
































10 
12 
14 
16 
18 


1:63 


















20 


601 


627 
















22 


760 


793 


826 














24 


920 


960 


1,000 


1,040 


1,080 










26 


1,103 


1,151 


1,199 


1,247 


1,295 


1,343 








28 


^308 


1,365 


1,422 


1,479 


1,536 


1,593 








30 


505 


1,571 


1,636 


1,702 


1,767 


1,832 


2,018 






32 


-,711 


1,792 


1,866 


1,941 


2,016 


2,090 


2,165 






34 




2,033 


2,118 


2,203 


2,288 


2,372 


2,457 


2,541 




36 






2,394 


2,490 


2,585 


2,680 


2,776 


2,871 




38 








2,802 


2,909 


3,018 


3,125 


3,233 


3,340 


40 



57 



VI 



YIELD TABLES 

Note has already been made of the fact that 
White Pine was very seldom found perfectly 
pure, and that when such groups occurred they 
were always very small in area. The groups 
for the valuation surveys were selected with as 
little admixture of other species as possible. 
Whenever it was feasible a full acre was mea- 
sured ; but in several instances where the Pine 
occurred in small patches the survey covered 
only three quarters of an acre. 

The procedure was as follows : After staking 
off the area, the diameters of the trees were 
measured with calipers to the nearest inch. All 
diameter measurements were taken at 4J feet 
above the level of the ground. The different 
species were entered in separate columns in the 
field-book. After a tree was measured, the 
bark was blazed with a gouge-blaze, in order 
that no mistake might occur by measuring it 
again. 

The inch diameter classes were then arranged 

58 



YIELD TABLES 



59 



in major classes, each major class containing, 
as a rule, four inch classes. The major classes 
were treated as separate groups, and the cubic 
content of each was obtained by means of a 
test tree. 

The actual basal area, or the total area of the 
cross sections of all the trees breast-high, was 
computed for each major class, and this num- 
ber was divided by the number of trees in the 
class. The product was the mean basal area 
of the class, or the basal area of the average 
tree. The diameter which corresponds to this 
area is the diameter of the average stem of the 
class. 

A tree was then chosen, as a sample or test 
tree, which had the same diameter as this aver- 
age tree. Care was taken that its height was 
normal, and that it was not abnormally full- 
boled or tapering. This tree was felled, and 
analyzed according to the method already de- 
scribed. The cubic content of each major class 
was then calculated as follows : 

The cubic content of the whole class is to 
the cubic content of the test tree as the basal 
area of the whole class is to the basal area of 
the test tree. Or if 

Fis the volume of the whole class, 

V the volume of the test tree. 



60 



THE WHITE PINE 



A the basal area of the whole class, and 
a the basal area of the test tree, then 

V : V : : A : a 

or F= 

a 

If, for example, a major class containing 
trees of 11, 12, 13, and 14 inches in diameter 
has a total basal area of 500 square feet, and 
its test tree has a basal area of 1 square foot 
and a volume of 25 cubic feet, then 

V — 25 cubic feet 
A = 500 square feet 
a = 1 square foot 
y : 25 : : 500 : 1 
y ^ 25 X 500 
1 

= 12,500 cubic feet 
= the volume of the whole class. 

The content of each majo.r class being thus 
determined, their sum gave the contents of the 
whole group. In this way the total volume of 
each group, with and without bark, was ascer- 
tained, as well as the merchantable contents in 
cubic and board feet. Here, as in all calcula- 
tions of volume in this study, branches were 
entirely excluded. 



and 
or 



YIELD TABLES 



61 



It would have been more accurate to measure 
a number of test trees for each major class in- 
stead of only one ; but it was the aim to waste 
as little timber as possible in the investigation. 
Furthermore, this simple method is sufficiently 
exact for every practical purpose. 

A careful description was made of the local- 
ity of each valuation survey, and the following 
points were noted:* 

a. The relative and absolute altitude. 

&. The rock and soil. 

c. The condition of the humus. 

d. The surface growth. 

e. The quality of the locality, which was given 
as I, II, or III, according as it was judged to be 
good, intermediate, or poor for the growth of 
White Pine. 

/. The density of the forest crop. This last 
was expressed in decimals of 1. The density 
was judged mainly by the forest canopy — that 
is, if the cover was complete and the ground 
entirely shaded, there being no holes or blanks, 
the density was called 1. If there was only 
half a crop it was called 0.5. The density of 
White Pine and of all other species taken to- 
gether was also determined independently. 

The diameter of the average tree of a group, 
as we have seen, is found by dividing the total 



62 



THE WHITE PINE 



basal area of the group by the mimber of trees. 
The result will be the basal area of the average 
tree, from which the diameter may easily be 
obtained. The average height and age of a 
group are the same as the height and age of the 
average tree. 

Below is given a summary of the valuation 
surveys, in which the most essential points are 
noted. It will be seen that in most cases only 
the generic name is given, and that the names 
of the species in mixture are abbreviated. The 
abbreviations are as follows : 



A. Ash 

B. Birch 
Bch. Beech 

Ced. White Cedar {TJiii- 

ja occidentalism L.) 
Ch. Chestnnt 
Cy. Black Cherry 
Fr. Balsam Fir 
Gm. Black Gum 
H. Hickory 
Hm. Hemlock 



I. Iron wood (Ostrya vir- 

giniana, K. Kocli.) 
JP. J ack or Pitch Pine 
M. Maple 
NP. Norway Pine 
O. Oak 
Pop. Poplar 
Sp. Spruce 

Tu. YeUow Poplar or Tulip 
Tree 



YIELD TABLES 



63 



Descriptive table of the valuation surveys, 
with particulars of the Station Soil, and grow- 
ing stock, the species in mixture, and the 
Density of the Forest. 









SOIL. 






Nearest 






state. 


County. 


Eailroad 










Station. 


Composi- 


Con- 






tion. 


sistency. 


N. Y. 


Franklin. 


Brandon. 


Sand. 


Loose. 


Pa. 


Lycoming. 


Jersey Mills. 


Sandy 

1 f»iTn 


Binding. 


N. Y. 


Clinton. 


Cadyville. 


Clay. 


Binding. 


Pa. 


Lycoming. 


Jersey Mills. 


Sandy 
loam. 


Binding. 


Pa. 


Lycoming. 


Jersey Mills. 


Sandy 

1 r»ci m 


Binding. 


Pa. 


Lycoming. 


Jersey Mills. 


Sandy 
loam. 


Binding. 


Pa. 


Lycoming. 


Jersey Mills. 


Sandy 
loam. 


Binding. 


Pa. 


Tioga. 


Ansonia. 


Sandy 
loam. 


Loose. 


Pa. 


Tioga. 


Ansonia. 


Sandy 
loam. 


Loose. 


Pa. 


Tioga. 


Ansonia. 


Sandy 
loam. 


Loose. 


Pa. 


Cameron. 


DriftT^ood. 


Sandy 
loaUi. 


Loose. 


Pa. 


Cameron. 


Driftwood. 


Sandy 
loam. 


Loose. 


Pa. 


Cameron. 


Driftwood. 


Sandy 
loam. 


Loose. 


Pa. 


Cameron. 


Driftwood. 


Sandy 
loam. 


Loose. 


Pa. 


Cameron. 


Driftwood. 


Sandy 
loam. 


Loose. 


Pa. 


Cameron. 


Driftwood. 


Sandy 
loam. 


Loose. 


Pa. 


Cameron. 


Driftwood. 


Sandy 
loam. 


Loose. 


Pa. 


Cameron. 


Driftwood. 


Sandy 
loam. 


Loose. 


Pa. 


Cameron. 


Driftwood. 


Sandy 
loam. 


Loose. 



64 



SOIL {continued). 


Moisture. 


Humns. 


Eock. 


Slope. 


Aspect. 


Quality. 


Dry. 
Fresh. 


Scanty. 
Good. 


Glacial 
drift. 

Sandstone. 


Undu- 
Flat. 




II. 
I. 


Fresh. 


Fair. 


Shale. 


Flat. 




I-II. 


Fresh. 


Good. 


Sandstone. 


Flat. 




I. 


Fresh. 


Good. 


Sandstone. 


Gentle. 


N. 


I. 


Fresh. 


Good. 


Sandstone. 


Flat. 




I. 


Fresh. 


Good. 


Sandstone. 


Flat. 




I. 


Fresh. 


Good. 


Sandstone. 


20° 


S. W. 


I. 


Fresh. 


Fair. 


Sandstone. 


15° 


s. 


I. 


Fresh. 


Good. 


Sandstone. 


10° 


s. 


I. 


Fresh. 


Burned. 


Sandstone. 


Flat. 




I. 


Fresh. 


Burned. 


Sandstone. 


Flat. 




I. 


Fresh. 


Fair. 


Sandstone. 


Flat. 




I. 


Fresh. 


Fair. 


Sandstone. 


Flat. 




I. 


Fresh. 


Fair. 


Sandstone. 


Flat. 




I. 


Fresh. 


Burned. 


Sandstone. 


Flat. 






Fresh. 


Burned. 


Sandstone. 


Flat. 






Fresh. 


Burned. 


Sandstone. 


Flat. 






Fresh. 


Burned. 


Sandstone. 


Flat. 







5 



65 



GROWING STOCK OF "WHITE PZNIE. 


Average 
Feet. 


Diam- 
eter of 

tree. 


Age. 


N"mnber 
of 
trees. 


Basal 
area. 

Sq. Ft. 


Volume, 
includ- 

bari. 
Cu. Ft. 


Volume, 
without 
bark. 

Cu. Ft. 


Mer- 
chantable 
timber. 

Cu. Ft. 


Mer- 
chantable 

Board 
Feet. 


20.0 


3.3 


19 


331 


19.25 


241.4 


208.0 






30.7 


5.0 


26 


561 


76.86 


1,402.0 


1,142.3 






41.6 


6.7 


35 


295 


72.03 


1,850.0 


1,628.0 






43.8 


6.7 


39 


570 


138.74 


3,702.0 


2,991.5 


1,217.5 


1,624 


43.8 


6.9 


39 


332 


86.51 


2,297.0 


1,907.0 


799.0 


1,318 


48.0 


6.9 


40 


395 


101.48 


2,686.0 


2,284.8 


822.6 


1,602 


48.0 


7.1 


40 


463 


127.16 


3,383.0 


2,850.0 


1,041.0 


2,043 


61.3 


12.7 


51 


160 


141.03 


4,717.2 


4,156.0 


2,938.4 


9,423 


68.7 


11.25 


52 


227 


157.11 


5,570.0 


5,194.0 


3,896.0 


11,794 


60.0 


8.1 


51 


159 


56.61 


2,038.0 


1,773.1 


1,347.6 


2,500 


66.3 


10.7 


51 


211 


132.16 


4,119.0 


3,501.1 


2,241.0 


5,700 


61.6 


9.1 


54 


246 


110.45 


3,927.0 


3,297.0 


2,258.4 


5,522 


66.0 


9.8 


51 


234 


123.65 


4,162.0 


3,583.0 


2,389.5 


6,199 


65.8 


10.3 


51 


130 


74.63 


2,709.0 


2,324.0 


1,673.3 


4,607 


61.5 


8.3 


51 


171 


68.84 


2,294.0 


1,921.0 


1,154.5 


3,188 


63.0 


8.8 


50 


357 


150.78 


5,373.0 


4,657.0 


2,794.2 


6,438 


64.4 


9.0 


51 


260 


114.98 


4,194.0 


3,667.0 


2,200.2 


5,336 


62.6 


8.7 


50 


358 


146.10 


4,535.0 


4,467.0 


2,814.2 


7,706 


65.8 


9.4 


51 


233 


110.89 


3,753.0 


3,227.6 


2,194.8 


5,660 



66 



SPECIES IN MIXTUEE. 


DENSITY. 


Most important species. 


Number 
of 
trees. 


Basal 
area. 

Sq. Ft. 


White 
Pine. 


Other 
species 


Holes 
and 
blanks. 








0.3 




0.7 


O., A., H., Ch. 


36 


6.56 


0.8 


0.1 


0.1 


Ik- 






0.65 




0.35 


0., H., Ch., NP., JP. 


55 


12.29 


0.8 


0.1 


0.1 


O., A., Ch., M.,H., B., 

I., Hm., NP., JP. 
A., Cy., M., Pop., 

B.,Gm.,NP.,Hm. 
A.,Ch.,M.,H.,B.,Bch., 
Cy., Tu., Hm., Pop. 


63 
54 
81 


17.18 
9.92 
12.84 


0.7 
0.8 
0.9 


0.2 
0.1 
0.1 


0.1 
0.1 


M. 


3 


1.87 


0.85 




0.15 


Hm., NP., B., Ch., 

M Bch. 
C, B., Bch., Ch., 

M Hm NP 
0.,M., Ch., Cy., 

Pop., JP. 


23 
99 
35 


8.0 
28.7 
10.95 


0.85 

0.5 

0.75 


0.05 

0.3 

0.1 


0.1 
0.2 
0.15 


O., M.,Ch., Pop., JP. 


24 


7.24 


0.7 


0.1 


0.2 


O., Ch., JP. 


89 


32.51 


0.7 


0.2 


0.1 


0., Cy., Pop., JP. 


117 


43.1 


0.5 


0.4 


0.1 


O., Ch., M., JP. 


140 


48.2 


0.4 


0.5 


0.1 


O., JP. 


27 


18.13 


0.9 


0.1 




O., Ch., Cy., Pop., JP. 


27 


12.15 


0.7 


0.1 


0.2 


0., Cy., Pop. 


47 


22.01 


0.8 


0.15 


0.05 


O., JP. 


10 


3.65 


0.65 


0 05 


0.3 



67 









SOIL. 






Xearest 






state. 


County. 


Eailroad 










Station. 


Compo- 


Con- 






sition. 


sistency. 


N. Y. 


Franklin. 


Brandon. 


Sand. 


Loose. 


Y. 


Franklin. 


Brandon. 


Sand. 


Loose. 


N. Y. 


Franklin. 


Brandon. 


Sand. 


Loose. 


N. Y. 


Clinton. 


Cadyville. 


Clay. 


Binding. 


K Y. 


Clinton. 


PlattslDurgh. 


Sand. 


Loose. 


Pa. 


Tioga. 


Ansonia. 


Sandy 
loam. 


Loose. 


Pa. 


Tioga, 


Ansonia. 


Loc^my 
sand. 


Loose. 


Pa. 


Tioga. 


Ansonia. 


Loamy 
sand. 


Loose. 


Pa. 


Lycoming. 


Jersey Mills. 


Sand. 


Loose. 


Pa. 


Tioga. 


Slate Run. 


Sand. 


Loose. 


Pa. 


Lycoming. 


Jersey Mills. 


Sand. 


Loose. 


Pa. 


Lycoming. 


Jersey MiUs. 


Sand. 


Loose. 


Pa. 


Lycoming. 


Jersey iMills. 


Sand. 


Loose. 


Pa. 


Lycoming. 


Jersey Mills. 


Loamy 
sand. 


Loose. 


Pa. 


Lycoming. 


Jersey Mills. 


JUUdli-l J 

sand. 


Loose. 


Jroi, 


Lycoming. 


J ersey iviiiife. 


Sandy 
loam. 


Loose. 


Pa. 


Tioga. 


Slate Run. 


Loamy 
sand. 


Loose. 


Pa. 


Tioga. 


Slate Run. 


Sandy 
loam. 


Loose. 


Pa. 


Clearfield. 


Clearfield. 


Clay. 


Binding. 



68 



SOIL (continued). 


Moisture, 


Humus. 


Eock. 


Slope. 


Aspect. 


Quality. 


Fresli. 
Fresli. 
Fresli. 
Moist. 
Dry. 


Very 

Good. 
Very 

good. 
Very 

good. 
Very 

good. 

Poor. 


Glacial 

drift. 
Glacial 

drift. 
Glacial 

drift. 

Alluvial. 

Glacial 
drift. 


Flat. 
Flat. 
Flat. 
Flat. 
Flat. 




II. 
II. 
II. 
II. 
III. 


Dry. 


Poor. 


Sandstone. 


5° 


E. 


II. 


Dry. 


Burned. 


Sandstone. 


15° 


S.E. 


II. 


Dry. 


Burned. 


Sandstone. 


25° 


S. 


II. 


Dry. 


Burned. 


Sandstone. 


10° 


W. 


II. 


Dry. 


Burned. 


Sandstone. 


20° 


s. w. 


II. 


Dry. 


Burned. 


Sandstone. 


Undu- 
lating. 




II. 


Dry. 


Fair. 


Sandstone. 


25° 


N. 


III. 


Dry. 


Fair. 


Sandstone. 


30° 


N. 


III. 


Fresh. 


Burned. 


Sandstone. 


25° 


E. 


II. 


Fresli. 


Fair. 


Sandstone. 


20° 


W. 


II. 


Fresh. 


Good. 


Sandstone. 


10° 


W. 


I. 


Dry. 


Burned. 


Sandstone. 


25° 


S. W. 


III. 


Fresh. 


Good. 


Sandstone. 


20° 


W. 


I. 


Fresh. 


Burned. 


Conglom- 
erate. 


25° 


W. 


II. 



5* 



69 



G-EOWING STOCK OF WHITE PIN^E. 


Average 
height. 

Feet. 


Diam- 
eter of 
average 
tree. 

Inches. 


Age. 


Number 

01 

trees. 


Basal 
area. 

Sq. Ft. 


Volume, 
includ- 
ing 
bark. 


Volume, 
without 
bark. 

Cu. Ft. 


Mer- 
chantable 
timber. 

Cu. Ft. 


Mer- 
chantable 
timber. 

Board 
Feet. 


51.6 


7.3 


50 


197 


56.82 


1,619.0 


1,397.0 


555.8 


1,170 


50.5 


7.1 


48 


331 


91.10 


2,478.0 


2,195.0 


745.6 


1,574 


53.0 


7.9 


51 


250 


84.97 


2,444.0 


2,194.0 


734.0 


2,008 


62.1 


10.0 


60 


175 


94.77 


3,308.0 


2,878.9 


1,756.2 


4,215 


45.0 


7.8 


68 


219 


71.33 


1,961.0 


1,706.0 


1,058.0 


1,080 


70.8 


12.4 


102 


72 


60.05 


2,173.0 


1,934.0 


1,576.0 


4,560 


75.0 


11.4 


103 


147 


103.13 


4,161.0 


3,703.0 


3,110.5 


7,920 


90.0 


16.1 


128 


85 


120.26 


5,441.1 


4,902.0 


4.377.3 


19,000 


93.3 


19.8 


131 


44 


93.78 


4,331.0 


3,855.0 


3,546.0 


15,590 


80.0 


19.4 


135 


41 


84.25 


3,420.4 


3,044.0 


2,778.0 


12,724 


97.7 


24.1 


138 


23 


63.54 


3,036.0 


2,702.0 


2,422.0 


14,040 


92.0 


17.9 


229 


61 


106.89 


5,017.0 


4,465.0 


4,068.0 


17,500 


84.0 


16.6 


231 


41 


61.73 


2,817.0 


2,507.0 


2,269.0 


9.127 


110./ 




zoo 


o 1 


114. 4.0 


0,»70D.U 


p» inn n 




94. 4-83 


113.3 


26.9 


237 


39 


114.95 


5,766.0 


5,093.0 


4,735.0 


24,597 


127.6 


24.9 


245 


44 


146.44 


8,912.0 


7,932.0 


7,377.0 


41,708 


90.0 


21.8 


240 


25 


64.52 


2,880.7 


2,564.0 


2,359.0 


12,125 


130.0 


28.3 


245 


18 


78.59 


4,612.4 


4,065.0 


3,796.7 


23,246 


117.5 


24.7 


259 


37 


122.63 


6,762.6 


5,993.8 


5,598.8 


32,156 



70 



SPECIES m MIXTUEE. 


DENSITY. 


Most important species. 


Number 
of 
trees. 


Basal 
area. 

Sq. Ft. 


Wbite 
Pine. 


Other 
species. 


Holes 
and 
blanks 


B., M., 8p., Bt., Urn. 


165 


45.35 


0.35 


0.3 


0.35 


B., M., Jrop., 8p.,^r. 


74 


11.36 


0.55 


0.1 


0.35 


B., M., Cy., Ben., Sp., Fr. 

B., Bcti., Cy., M., A., 
Pop., Ced., Elm, NP. 

O., B., NP. 


139 
74 
9 


42.2 
27.81 
2.64 


0.65 

0.6 

0.55 


0.3 

0.15 

0.05 


0.05 
0.25 
0.4 


O., Cli. Hm. 


29 


27.63 


0.5 


0.2 


0.3 


O., Cn., Hm., NP., A. 


48 


25.12 


0.55 


0.15 


0.3 


O., Ch. 


5 


3.1 


0.6 




0.4 


O., Cli., JP. 


18 


13.01 


0.5 


0.1 


0.4 


0., JP. 


20 


18.43 


0.4 


0.1 


0.5 








0.4 




0.6 


O., B., Cli.,M., Hm, 


110 


107.59 


0.5 


0.5 


0., B., Ch., Hm., JP. 


75 


92.15 


0.3 


0.5 


0.2 


O., B., Ch., Hm., M. 


17 


14.45 


0.45 


0.05 


0.5 


0., Ch., M., Hm. 


32 


65.3 


0.45 


0.25 


0.3 


O., M., Ch., Hm. 


36 


84.7 


0.5 


0.3 


0.2 


O., Hm. 


17 


33.8 


0.35 


0.15 


0.5 


B., M., Hm. 


81 


101.68 


0.3 


0.4 


0.3 


Hm., 0. 


5 


5.75 


0.6 




0.4 



71 



72 



THE WHITE PINE 



The yield tables are based upon the valuation 
surveys given in the summary above. It would 
have been very difficult and equally undesirable 
to construct tables showino- the actual fields 

O ft/ 

measured per acre at the different ages^ because 
the areas assessed were either not fully stocked 
by natui'e or had been thinned by fires or inju- 
dicious cutting, or else they contained a large 
percentage of other species in mixture. Conse- 
quently the results at different ages would have 
been more influenced by the degree of density 
than by any differences in the localities. The 
yield tables are therefore constructed to show, 
not the actual jield per acre as found in the 
valuation surveys, but the yield of acres fully 
stocked with pure White Pine. It is easy to re- 
duce the figures to correspond with any less 
degree of density, simply by multiplying them 
by the decimal which expresses it. Thus the 
jdeld of an acre only half stocked with Pine 
would be found by multiplying the figure in the 
table by 0.5. 

In the preparation of the tables the yields of 
the acres were divided by the respective density 
factors, and the yields for fully stocked acres 
were thus obtained. The latter were then plot- 
ted upon cross-section paper, on the horizontal 
lines or abscissae of which the number of years 



YIELD TABLES 



73 



was laid off, and on the vertical lines or ordi- 
nates the number of cubic feet. Normal curves 
were then struck through the highest and low- 
est points. They represent the progress of the 
yield for the best and worst localities. An in- 
termediate curve was also drawn for quality II. 

The curves were drawn first for the yield per 
acre including the bark, and the values at the 
different ten-year periods were entered in yield 
tables, beginning with 30 years. 

Curves for the yield per acre of Pine, ex- 
cluding the bark, as well as curves for the 
yield of merchantable cubic and board feet, 
were also constructed. 

The difference in the volumes for successive 
years in a given quality is the amount of wood 
laid on from year to year, or the current an- 
nual increment. The volume at a given period 
divided by the age is the mean annual incre- 
ment. These values have been computed and 
are given in the yield tables. It will be seen 
that the mean annual increment culminates 
much later than the current annual increment, 
and further, that it culminates at a point where 
the two are equal. The current annual incre- 
ment is at first very small, then rises rapidly to 
a much higher point than the mean annual 
increment ever reaches, and at last falls again. 



74 THE WHITE PINE 



Fig. 6. 




Current annual increment. 
Mean annual Increment. 



Since the mean annual increment at any time 
is the average of all the current annual incre- 
ment of previous years^ it is evident that when 
the latter falls below its own average, the aver- 
age itself (or the mean annual increment) will 
have passed its highest point, which will neces- 
sarily be at the moment when both are equal. 
Thus for White Pine on land of first quality the 
mean annual increment, without bark, reaches 
its highest point in the table at 70 years, with 
a production of 98.6 cubic feet per acre. The 
current annual increment for the same age is 
100 cubic feet per acre. At 80 years these 
values are 97.5 and 90 respectively. At some 
year between these two there is a point at which 
the mean annual increment rises from 98.6, and 



YIELD TABLES 



75 



the current annual increment falls from 100, to 
meet, at which the former culminates and the 
two are equal. 

The mean annual as well as the current an- 
nual increment culminates earlier the better the 
quality of the locality. In quality I the current 
and mean annual increment of the wood and 
bark culmina.te respectively at 40 and 60 years. 
In quality II tliey culminate at 50 and 80^ and 
in quality III not until 60 (or thereabouts) and 
100. 

The culmination of increment of the merchant- 
able timber takes place later than that in which 
the entire stem is included. Thus in quality II 
the culmination for the current and mean an- 
nual increment occurs for the whole stem with 
the bark at 50 and 80 years respectively. For 
the merchantable timber expressed in cubic feet 
the corresponding points are at 60 and 100 
years. To compute the growth in height of the 
various groups as simple a method as possible 
was employed. The growth in height of all 
the average trees of the valuation survey 
groups was plotted on cross-section paper and 
an average curve was thus obtained for each 
class. It may be said that the average tree at a 
given age has not always been the average tree, 
and that this method is consequently incorrect. 



76 



THE WHITE PINE 



It is undoubtedly true that a tree whicli is the 
average tree at one period will not always be 
so; but by the use of the average trees of 
groups of different ages the error which may 
arise is almost wholly eliminated. The ques- 
tion is a very complicated one, and for the pur- 
pose in hand this method is sufficiently correct. 

The height growth reaches its maximum rate 
earlier as the quality of the locality improves. 
The most rapid growth in height takes place 
between 15 and 20 years on soil of quality I, 
between 20 and 30 years on quality II, and be- 
tween 30 and 40 years on quality III. 

The diameter of the average tree was found 
by plotting the growths of the average trees of 
the various groups, and by constructing curves 
in the same way as for the height growth. (See 
Plate II.) 

The basal areas of the valuation survey acres 
were computed for fully stocked acres and 
plotted on cross-section paper, and curves were 
constructed in the same manner as the curves 
for the volume yield. These curves were found 
to rise very rapidly at first, then to lay them- 
selves over, and finally to run on a straight line. 

The number of trees per acre is found from 
the material already obtained. The total basal 
area per acre at different periods is divided by 



YIELD TABLES 



77 



the basal area of the average stem for each pe- 
riod, and the result is the number of trees per 
acre. 

It will be seen that the number of trees per 
acre increases as the locality grows poorer. 
This is easily explained by the smaller size of 
the individual trees. 

Form factors were computed for the volume 
with bark to serve as a control for the tables. 
It will be seen that the form factors at first fall 
off and after a certain point rise again, and 
that they are larger the poorer the quality of 
the locality. 




YIELD TABLES 



79 



Yield Tables for fully stocked acres of White 
Pine in localities of quality I, II, and III, cal- 
culated for the whole contents of the stem, with 
and without bark, in cubic feet, and for the mer- 
chantable timber in cubic and board feet, toge- 
ther with form factors for the stem with the 
bark. 



QUALITY I 









Diameter 




Stem with Bark. 


Age. 


Number 
of trees. 


Basal Area 
breast- 
high. 

Sq. ft. 


of 
average 
tree. 

Inches. 


Average 
height. 

Feet. 


Volume. 
Cu. ft. 


Current 
annual 
incre- 
ment. 
Cu. ft. 


Mean 
annual 
incre- 
ment. 
Cu. ft. 


Form 
factor 


30 


679 


112.0 


5.5 


41.5 


2,800 


93.3 


93.3 


.602 


40 


485 


145.0 


7.4 


54.5 


4,250 


145.0 


106.3 


.538 


50 


379 


175.0 


9.2 


64.5 


5,500 


125.0 


110.0 


.487 


60 


309 


200.0 


10.9 


72.5 


6,750 


125.0 


112.5 


.466 


70 


251 


221.0 


12.4 


79.0 


7,850 


110.0 


112.1 


.450 


80 


228 


237.0 


13.8 


84.25 


8,850 


100.0 


110.6 


.443 


90 


200 


249.0 


15.1 


89.0 


9,750 


90.0 


108.3 


.440 


100 


178 


258.5 


16.3 


93.25 


10,550 


80.0 


105.5 


.438 


110 


161 


265.0 


17.4 


97.0 


11,250 


70.0 


102.3 


.438 


120 


146 


269.0 


18.35 


100.5 


11,900 


65.0 


99.1 


.440 


130 


136 


272.0 


19.15 


103.75 


12,500 


60.0 


96.1 


.443 


140 


126 


273.0 


19.95 


107.0 


13,025 


52.5 


93.0 


.445 


150 


117 


274.0 


20.65 


109.75 


13,500 


47.5 


90.0 


.449 


160 


111 


274.0 


21.3 


112.5 


13,925 


42.5 


87.0 


.452 


170 


105 


274.0 


21.9 


114.75 


14,300 


37.5 


84.1 


.455 


180 


100 


274.0 


22.4 


117.0 


14,650 


35.0 


81.4 


.457 


190 


97 


274.0 


22.85 


119.25 


15,000 


35.0 


78.9 


.459 


200 


93 


274.0 


23.3 


121.5 


15,300 


30.0 


76.5 


.460 


210 


89 


274.0 


23.75 


123.5 


15,550 


25.0 


74.0 


.460 


220 


86 


274.0 


24.15 


125.0 


15,750 


20.0 


71.6 


.460 


230 


84 


274.0 


24.55 


126.5 


15,950 


20.0 


69.4 


.460 


240 


81 


274.0 


24.9 


128.0 


16,150 


20.0 


67.3 


.461 


250 


80 


274.0 


25.2 


129.5 


16,350 


20.0 


65.4 


.461 



80 



QUALITY I 



stem without Bark. 


Merchantable Timber 
Solid 


Merchantable Timber 
per Scale. 




Volume 
Cu. ft. 


Current 
annual 
incre- 
ment. 
Cu. ft. 


Mean 
annual 
incre- 
ment. 
Cu.ft. 


Volume 
Cu. ft. 


Current 
annual 

ment. 
Cu. ft. 


Mean 
annual 

ment. 
Cu. ft. 


Am't. 

Board 
feet. 


Current 
annual 

ment. 
B'd ft. 


Mean 
annual 

ment. 
B'd ft. 


Age. 


2,450 
3,650 


81.7 


81.7 
92.6 














30 
40 


120.0 


1,100 


27.5 


27.5 


2,650 


66.2 


66.2 


4,800 


115.0 


96.0 


3,050 


295.0 


61.0 


8,000 


535 


160.0 


50 


5,900 


110.0 


98.3 


4,550 


150.0 


75.8 


13,400 


540 


223.3 


60 


6,900 


100.0 


98.6 


5,800 


125.0 


82.9 


18,800 


540 


268.6 


70 


7,800 


90.0 


97.5 


6,850 


105.0 


85.6 


24,200 


540 


302.5 


80 


8,650 


85.0 


96.1 


7,700 


85.0 


85.5 


29,200 


500 


324.4 


90 


9,350 


75.0 


93.5 


8,425 


72.5 


84.3 


34,000 


480 


340.0 


100 


10,000 


65.0 


90.9 


9,050 


62.5 


82.3 


38,500 


450 


350.0 


110 


10,600 


60.0 


88.3 


9,600 


55.0 


80.0 


42,800 


430 


356.7 


120 


11,075 


47.5 


85.2 


10,100 


50.0 


77.7 


46,850 


400 


360.0 


130 


11,550 


47.5 


82.2 


10,550 


45.0 


75.4 


50,400 


370 


360.0 


140 


11,975 


42.5 


79.8 


11,000 


45.0 


73.3 


53,900 


340 


359.3 


150 


12,350 


37.5 


77.2 


11,400 


40.0 


71.3 


57,200 


330 


357.5 


160 


12,700 


35.0 


74.7 


11,750 


35.0 


69.1 


60,200 


300 


353.3 


170 


13,050 


35.0 


72.5 


12,050 


30.0 


66.9 


62,900 


270 


349.4 


180 


13,350 


30.0 


70.3 


12,350 


30.0 


65.0 


65,500 


260 


344.7 


190 


13,650 


30.0 


68.3 


12,600 


25.0 


63.0 


67,900 


240 


339.5 


200 


13,800 


25.0 


65.7 


12,800 


20.0 


61.0 


70,100 


220 


333.8 


210 


14,000 


20.0 


63.6 


13,000 


20.0 


59.1 


72,200 


210 


328.2 


220 


14,200 


20.0 


61.7 


13,200 


20.0 


57.4 


74,000 


180 


321.7 


230 


14,400 


20.0 


60.0 


13,350 


15.0 


55.6 


75,600 


160 


315.0 


240 


14,600 


20.0 


58.4 


13,500 


15.0 


54.0 


77,000 


140 


308.0 


250 



6 



81 



QUALITY II 







Basal Area 
breast- 
higli. 

Sq. ft. 


Diameter 




Stem with Bark. 


Age. 


J^uinber 
of trees. 


of 
average 
tree. 

Inches. 


height. 
Feet. 


Volume. 
Cu. ft. 


Current 
annual 
incre- 
ment. 
Cu. ft. 


Mean 
annual 
incre- 
ment. 
Cu. ft. 


Form 
factor. 


30 


1011 


88.0 


4.0 


25.75 


1,680 


56.0 


56.0 


.741 


40 


661 


113.0 


5.6 


36.5 


2,500 


82.0 


61.7 


.606 


50 


495 


136.0 


7.1 


46.0 


3,350 


85.0 


66.8 


.535 


60 


396 


156.0 


8.5 


55.75 


4,150 


80.0 


69.1 


.495 


70 


324 


173.5 


9.9 


60.25 


4,950 


80.0 


70.7 


.474 


80 


280 


188.0 


11.1 


65.5 


5,700 


75.0 


71.3 


.463 


90 


245 


199.0 


12.2 


70.5 


6,375 


67.5 


70.8 


.454 


100 


217 


208.0 


13.25 


74.5 


7,000 


62.5 


70.0 


.452 


110 


193 


214.0 


14.25 


78.5 


7,575 


57.5 


68.8 


.451 


120 


174 


218.0 


15.15 


82.0 


8,150 


57.5 


67.9 


.456 


130 


160 


220.5 


15.9 


85.0 


8,675 


52.5 


66.8 


.463 


140 


148 


221.5 


16.6 


88.0 


9,150 


47.5 


65.4 


.469 


150 


136 


222.0 


17.3 


91.0 


9,575 


42.5 


63.8 


.474 


160 


127 


222.0 


17.9 


93.5 


9,950 


37.5 


62.2 


.479 


170 


119 


222.0 


18.5 


96.0 


10,300 


35.0 


60.6 


.483 


180 


113 


222.0 


19.0 


98.0 


10,575 


27.5 


58.8 


.486 


190 


107 


222.0 


19.5 


100.0 


10,850 


27.5 


57.1 


.489 


200 


102 


222.0 


20.0 


102.0 


11,100 


25.0 


55.5 


.490 


210 


98 


222.0 


20.4 


104.0 


11,325 


22.5 


53.9 


.490 


220 


94 


222.0 


20.8 


105.5 


11,525 


20.0 


52.4 


.490 


230 


91 


222.0 


21.2 


106.75 


11,700 


17.5 


50.9 


.490 


240 


88 


222.0 


21.5 


108.0 


11,850 


15.0 


49.4 


.490 


250 


85 


222.0 


21.8 


109.0 


12,000 


15.0 


48.0 


.491 



82 



QUALITY II 



stem without Bark. 


Merchantable Timber 
Solid. 


Merchantable Timber 
per Scale. 




Yolume 
Cu. ft. 


Current 
annual 
incre- 
ment. 
Cu. ft. 


Mean 
annual 
incre- 
ment. 
Cu. ft. 


Volume 
Cu. ft. 


Current 
annual 
incre- 
ment. 
Cu. ft. 


Mean 
annual 
incre- 
ment. 
Cu. ft. 


Am't. 

Board 
feet. 


Current 
annual 
incre- 
ment. 
B'd ft. 


Mean 
annual 
incre- 
ment. 
B'dft. 


Age. 


1,450 


48.3 


i8.3 














30 


2,150 


70.0 


53.7 














40 


2,900 


75.0 


58.0 


1,100 


22.0 


22.0 


2,000 


40.0 


40.0 


50 


3,600 


70.0 


60.0 


2,200 


110.0 


36.7 


5,300 


330.0 


88.3 


60 


4,300 


70.0 


61.4 


3,250 


105.0 


46.4 


8,700 


340.0 


124.3 


70 


5,000 


70.0 


62.5 


4,125 


87.5 


51.6 


12,000 


330.0 


150.0 


80 


5,650 


65.0 


62.8 


4,875 


75.0 


54.2 


15,300 


330.0 


170.0 


90 


6,225 


57.5 


62.3 


5,500 


62.5 


55.0 


18,500 


320.0 


185.0 


100 


6,750 


52.5 


61.4 


6,000 


50.0 


54.5 


21,500 


300.0 


195.5 


110 


7,250 


50.0 


60.4 


6,500 


50.0 


54.2 


24,500 


300.0 


204.2 


120 


7,725 


47.5 


59.4 


6,950 


45.0 


53.5 


27,600 


290.0 


212.3 


130 


8,150 


42.5 


58.2 


7,350 


40.0 


52.5 


30,300 


270.0 


216.4 


140 


8,525 


37.5 


56.8 


7,725 


37.5 


51.5 


32,800 


250.0 


218.7 


150 


8,880 


32.5 


55.3 


8,050 


32.5 


50.3 


35,200 


240.0 


220.0 


160 


9,150 


30.0 


53.8 


8,350 


30.0 


49.1 


37,300 


210.0 


219.4 


170 


9,400 


25.0 


52.2 


8,600 


25.0 


47.9 


39,300 


200.0 


218.3 


180 


9,650 


25.0 


50.8 


8,825 


22.5 


46.4 


41,200 


190.0 


216.8 


190 


9,875 


22.5 


49.4 


9,050 


22.5 


45.3 


43,100 


190.0 


215.5 


200 


10,075 


20.0 


48.0 


9,250 


20.0 


44.0 


44,900 


180.0 


213.8 


210 


10,250 


17.5 


46.6 


9,425 


17.5 


42.8 


46,600 


170.0 


211.8 


220 


10,400 


15.0 


45.2 


9,575 


15.0 


41.6 


48,100 


150.0 


209.1 


230 


10,550 


15.0 


44.0 


9,700 


12.5 


40.4 


49,400 


130.0 


205.8 


240 


10,700 


15.0 


42.8 


9,825 


12.5 


39.3 


50,600 


120.0 


202.4 


250 



83 



QUALITY III 













Stem with Bark. 










Diameter 

of 
average 
tree. 

Inches. 












Age. 


]Sruiiiber 
of trees. 


Basal Area 
breast- 
bigb. 

Sq. ft. 


Average 
height. 

Feet. 


Volume. 
Cu. ft. 


1 Current 
annual 
incre- 

Cu. ft.' 


Mean 
aunual 
incre- 

Cu.ft.' 


Form 
factor. 


30 


1,478 


68.0 


2.9 


15.0 


850 


28.3 


28.3 


.833 


40 


951 


87.5 


4.1 


22.5 


1,300 


45.0 


32.5 


.660 


50 


686 


105.0 


5.3 


30.0 


1,800 


50.0 


36.0 


.571 


60 


542 


121.0 


6.4 


36.25 


2,300 


50.0 


38.3 


.524 


70 


435 


133.5 


7.5 


42.0 


2,800 


50.0 


40.0 


.499 


80 


372 


144.0 


8.5 


47.0 


3,275 


47.5 


40.9 


.484 


90 


310 


152.5 


9.5 


51.5 


3,725 


45.0 


41.4 


.474 


100 


270 


159.5 


10.4 


55.75 


4,150 


42.5 


41.5 


.466 


110 


241 


164.5 


11.2 


59.5 


4,550 


40.0 


41.4 


.465 


120 


214 


168.0 


12.0 


63.0 


4,925 


37.5 


41.0 


.465 


130 


193 


170.0 


12.7 


66.25 


5,275 


35.5 


40.6 


.468 


140 


176 


171.0 


13.35 


69.5 


5,625 


35.5 


40.2 


.473 


150 


161 


172.0 


14.0 


72.0 


5,950 


32.5 


39.6 


.480 


160 


147 


172.0 


14.6 


74.5 


6,250 


30.0 


39.1 


.488 


170 


137 


172.0 


15.15 


77.0 


6,500 


25.0 


38.2 


.491 


180 


128 


172.0 


15.7 


79.0 


6,725 


22.5 


37.3 


.495 


190 


120 


172.0 


16.2 


81.0 


6,950 


22.5 


36.6 


.499 


200 


113 


172.0 


16.65 


82.5 


7,150 


20.0 




.504 


210 


108 


172.0 


17.05 


84.0 


7,325 


17.5 


34.9 


.507 


220 


104 


172.0 


17.45 


85.5 


7,500 


17.5 


34.1 


.510 


230 


99 


172.0 


17.85 


86.75 


7,650 


15.0 


33.3 


.513 


240 


95 


172.0 


18.2 


87.75 


7,800 


15.0 


32.5 


.518 


250 


92 


172.0 


18.5 


88.5 


7,925 


12.5 


31.7 


.521 



84 



QUALITY III 



stem without Bark. 


Merchantable Timber 
Solid. 


Merchantable Timber 
per Scale. 




Volume 
Cu.ft. 


Current 
annual 
incre- 
ment. 
Cu. ft. 


Mean 
annual 
incre- 
ment. 
Cu. ft. 


Volume 
Cu.ft. 


Current 
annual 
incre- 
ment. 
Cu. ft. 


Mean 
annual 
incre- 
ment. 
Cu. ft. 


Am't. 

Board 
Feet. 


Current 
annual 
incre- 
ment. 
B'dft. 


Mean 
annual 
incre- 
ment. 
B'd ft. 


Age. 


750 
1,125 
1,575 
2,000 
2,425 


25.^ 


25.0 














30 


37.5 


28.1 














40 


45.0 


31.5 














50 


42.5 


33.3 


800 


13.3 


13.3 








60 


42.5 


34.6 


1,500 


70.0 


21.4 


1,900 


27.1 


27.1 


70 


2,850 


42.5 


35.6 


2,150 


65.0 


26.9 


3,700 


180.0 


46.3 


80 


3,275 


42.5 


36.6 


2,700 


55.0 


30.0 


5,500 


180.0 


61.7 


90 


3,700 


42.5 


37.0 


3,150 


45.0 


31.5 


7,300 


180.0 


73.0 


100 


4,050 


35.0 


36.8 


3,500 


35.0 


31.8 


9,100 


180.0 


82.7 


110 


4,375 


32.5 


36.5 


3,800 


30.0 


31.7 


10,900 


180.0 


90.8 


120 


4,700 


32.5 


35.2 


4,100 


30.0 


31.5 


12,700 


180.0 


97.7 


130 


5,000 


30.0 


35.7 


4,400 


30.0 


31.4 


14,500 


180.0 


103.5 


140 


5,300 


30.0 


35.3 


4,700 


30.0 


31.3 


16,200 


170.0 


108.0 


150 


5,550 


25.0 


34.7 


4,950 


25.0 


30.9 


17,900 


170.0 


111.9 


160 


5,800 


25.0 


34.1 


5,175 


22.5 


30.4 


19,500 


160.0 


114.7 


170 


6,000 


20.0 


33.3 


5,375 


20.0 


29.9 


21,000 


150.0 


116.7 


180 


6,200 


20.0 


32.6 


5,575 


20.0 


29.3 


22,400 


140.0 


117.9 


190 


6,375 


17.5 


31.9 


5,750 


17.5 


28.7 


23,700 


130.0 


118.5 


200 


6,525 


17.5 


31.1 


5,900 


15.0 


28.1 


24,900 


120.0 


118.6 


210 


6,675 


15.0 


30.3 


6,050 


15.0 


27.5 


26,000 


110.0 


118.2 


220 


6,800 


12.5 


29.6 


6,200 


15.0 


27.0 


27,000 


100.0 


117.4 


230 


6,925 


12.5 


28.9 


6,300 


10.0 


26.3 


28,000 


100.0 


116.5 


240 


7,050 


12.5 


28.2 


6,400 


10.0 


25.6 


28,900 


90.0 


115.6 


250 



6* 85 



VII 



CURVES 

The calculations upon which these curves de- 
pend were made, where area is taken into ac- 
count (Plates III -VI), on the basis of fully 
stocked acres, or acres of density 1. It wiU often 
be necessary, in using the curves, to make al- 
lowance for this fact. To do so the density of 
the group or forest must be estimated by ref- 
erence to the cover, or forest canopy, as explained 
on page 61, and the figure given by the curve 
must then be reduced by multiplication with the 
decimal by which the density is expressed. A 
curve is drawn for each one of the three qualities 
of locality, as explained on page 72. According 
to the grade of the Pine with reference to which 
these curves are used, one or another of them 
must be employed. Correct results will depend 
very largely on the observance of this caution, 
and on a proper estimate of the density in each 
case. 



87 



88 



CURVES 



CURVES FOR THE AVERAGE HEIGHT OF WHITE 
PINE GROUPS. 

This Plate answers the question : How high is 
a White Pine forest at a given age ? Thus it 
appears from the curves that in good soil the 
average height of a body of Pine timber 100 
years old is 93 feet. In the preceding 50 years 
it grew from 64 feet to 93, an increase of 29 
feet, while in the next 50 years it will grow but 
17 feet, to reach, at the end of that time, the 
height of 110. It is easy to see from the shape 
of the curve that the period of most rapid 
growth was passed before the end of the first 
century. 




89 



90 



CURVES 



CURVES FOR THE DIAMETER OF THE AVERAGE 
TREE IN WHITE PINE GROUPS. 

From this table it is possible to find the ap- 
proximate probable age of a group of White 
Pine by means of callipers or a tape measure. 
Thus, if the diameter of an average tree of an 
even-aged group is found to be 16 inches, the 
probable age of the group will be 98 years in a 
locality of the first grade, 186 if the locality is 
poor, and 132 years if it is intermediate. 




91 



92 



CURVES 



CUEVES FOR THE VOLUME OF WHITE PINE 
GROUPS, EXCLUDING BRANCHES. 

If the present volume of a fully stocked acre of 
White Pine is known, this Plate makes it pos- 
sible to find its approximate age, or vice versa. 
It can also be used to ascertain the density of 
an acre of known volume and age simply by 
dividing the quantity on the ground by the ap- 
propriate number found from the curve. By 
its means the growth of an acre of forest may 
be predicted, when its age and volume are 
known, for any desired time. By ascertaining 
the probable age from the diameter of the av- 
erage tree through the use of Plate II, it is 
possible to discover the approximate age, volume 
per acre, and future increment of a forest of 
White Pine with no other instrument than a 
tape measure or a pair of callipers. If the esti- 
mate desired is a rough one, even these simple 
measurements may be dispensed with, and a 
result may be reached by the eye alone. 

If an acre is only half stocked, the chances 
are that the future growth wiU be more than 
half that shown by the table, because the trees, 
as they grow and spread, will fill up the blankSc 
The density will increase with the age. 




93 



94 



CURVES 



CURVES FOR THE VOLUME OF WHITE PINE, 
EXCLUDING BARK AND BRANCHES. 

These curves supply in general the same in- 
formation as those of Plate III, except that 
they take account of nothing but the wood in 
the stem. They show, consequently, the total 
net product of the shafts in cubic feet of wood. 




95 



96 



CURVES 



CURVES FOR THE MERCHANTABLE YIELD OF 
WHITE PINE GROUPS, IN CUBIC FEET. 

This Plate gives the total cubic contents of all 
the logs of merchantable size which conld be 
cut from a fully stocked acre, at different ages 
and on different grades of locality, on the basis 
of the present practice of lumbermen. It should 
be remembered that the limit of size of mer- 
chantable logs is continually sinking. The most 
conspicuous fact which may be learned from 
this plate is that the yield begins at 40, 50, and 
60 years respectively for the three grades of 
locality, although it is at first so small as to be 
of very moderate importance. But after the 
yield has once begun the rise is rapid and long 
sustained. Thus at 50 years a fully stocked 
acre of quality II will yield 1,100 cubic feet of 
merchantable timber. At 100 years it will yield 
5,500 cubit feet, at 150 years 7,700, and at 250 
years nearly 10,000 cubic feet. 




7 



97 



98 



CURVES 



CURVES FOR THE YIELD OF WHITE PINE 
GROUPS IN BOARD FEET. 

These curves are marked by a very late be- 
ginning and a very rapid, uniform, and long- 
sustained rise. On a locality of grade I, a White 
Pine acre which began with 2,500 feet at 40 
years will reach 78,000 feet at the age of 250, and 
will still be growing at the rate of about 1,000 
feet every six years. 

If the age of a White Pine group is found by 
the curves in Plate II, its stand in board feet 
may be obtained from the present Plate, and its 
future increment in the same unit may then be 
seen at a glance. This Plate will also be found 
useful in arriving at the relation between the 
future value of Pine land and the expenses 
chargeable against it for protection, interest, 
and taxes. By balancing the probable rise in 
taxes against the probable rise in the value of 
stumpage, a very correct idea of the commercial 
wisdom of holding Pine lands for their future 
increment in lumber may be obtained. The 
result reached will be based on actual measure- 
ment and calculation, and will be correspond- 
ingly reliable. 




99 



AREAS OF CIRCLES 
FOR DIAMETERS OF 1 INCH TO 



60 INCHES. 1 















Diameter. 
Inches. 


Area. 
Square Feet. 




4^ 


Diameter. 
Inches. 




Diameter 
Inches. 


Area. 
Square Fe( 


Diameter 
Inches. 


Area. 
Square Fee 


Diametei 
Inches. 


Area. 
Square Fe( 


Diametei 
Inches. 


Area. 

Square Fee 


Area. 

Square Fe( 


1.0 


.006 


2.0 


.022 


3.0 


.049 


4.0 


.087 


5.0 


.136 


6.0 


.196 


.1 


.007 


.1 


.024 


.1 


.052 


.1 


.092 


.1 


.142 


.1 


.203 


.2 


.008 


.2 


.026 


.2 


.056 


.2 


.096 


.2 


.147 


.2 


.210 


.3 


.009 


.3 


.029 


.3 


.059 


.3 


.101 


.3 


.153 


.3 


.216 


A 


.011 


.4 


.031 


.4 


.063 


.4 


.106 


.4 


.159 


.4 


.223 


.5 


.012 


.5 


.034 


.5 


.067 


.5 


1-11 
.111 


.5 


.loo 


r5 


.230 


.6 


.014 


.6 


.037 


.6 


.071. 


.6 


.115 


a 
.D 


.171 


.6 


.238 


.7 


.016 


.7 


.040 


.7 


.075 


.7 


.121 


.7 


.177 


.7 


.245 


.8 


.018 


.8 


.043 


.8 


.079 


.8 


.126 


.8 


1 OA 

.184 


.8 


.252 


.y 


.020 


.9 


.046 


.9 


.083 


.9 


.131 


.9 




.9 


.2d0 


7.0 


.267 


8.0 


.349 


9.0 


.442 


10.0 


.545 


11.0 


.660 


12.0 


.785 


.1 


.275 


.1 


.358 


.1 


.452 


.1 


.556 


.1 


.672 


.1 


.799 


.2 


.283 


.2 


.367 


.2 


.462 


.2 


.568 


.2 


.684 


.2 


.812 


.3 


.291 


.3 


.376 


.3 


.472 


.3 


.579 


.3 


.697 


.3 


.825 


A 


.299 


.4 


.385 


.4 


.482 


.4 


.590 


.4 


.709 


.4 


.839 


.5 


.307 


.5 


.394 


.5 


.492 


.5 


.601 


.5 


.721 


•5 


.852 


.6 


.315 


.6 


.403 


.6 


.503 


.6 


.613 


.6 


.734 


.6 


.866 


.7 


.323 


.7 


.413 


.7 


.513 


.7 


.625 


.7 


.747 


.7 


.880 


.8 


.332 


.8 


.422 


.8 


.524 


.8 


.636 


.8 


.760 


.8 


.894 


.9 


.340 


.9 


.432 


.9 


.535 


.9 


.648 


.9 


.772 


.9 


.908 



1 From Schlich's Manual of Forestry, Vol. III., by permission. 
100 



II 













Area, 
luare Feet. 














Diameter 
Inches. 


Area, 
luare Fe< 


Oianieter 
Inches. 


Area, 
luare Fe( 


Diameter 
Inches. 


Diametei 
Inches. 


Area. 

juare Fe( 


Oianietei 
Inches. 


Area, 
luare Fe( 


Diametei 
Inches. 


Area, 
luare Fe( 
























w 


1^ 0 


Q99 


J-dt.U 






1.227 


16.0 




17 0 


1 f^lR 

l.tO t u 


J.O.V/ 


1 7fi7 

X, IK) 1 


^1 


.936 




1.084 


^1 


1.244 


,1 


1.414 




1.595 




1.787 


.2 


.950 


.2 


1.100 


.2 


1.260 


.2 




.2 


1.614 


.2 


1.807 


.3 


.965 


.3 


1.115 


.3 


1.277 


.3 


1.449 


.3 


1.632 


.3 


1.827 


.4 


.979 


.4 


1.131 


.4 


1.294 


.4 


1.467 


.4 


1.651 


.4 


1.847 


.5 


.994 


.5 


1.147 


.5 


1.310 


.5 


1.485 


.5 


1.670 


.5 


1.867 


.6 


1.009 


.6 


1.163 


.6 


1.327 


.6 


1.503 


6 


1.689 


.6 


1.887 


.7 


1.024 


.7 


1.179 


.7 


1.344 


.7 


1.521 


.7 


1.709 


.7 


1.907 


.8 


1.039 


.8 


1.195 


.8 


1.362 


.8 


1.539 


.8 


1.728 


.8 


1.928 


.9 


1.054 


.9 


1.211 


.9 


1.379 


.9 


1.558 


.9 


1.748 


.9 


1.948 


19.0 


1.969 


20.0 


2.182 


21.0 


2.405 


22.0 


2.640 


23.0 


2.885 


24.0 


3.142 


.1 


1.990 


.1 


2.204 


.1 


2.428 


.1 


2.664 


.1 


2.910 


.1 


3.168 


.2 


2.011 


.2 


2.226 


.2 


2.451 


.2 


2.688 


.2 


2.936 


.2 


3.194 


.3 


2.032 


.3 


2.248 


.3 


2.475 


.3 


2.712 


.3 


2.961 


.3 


3.221 


A 


2.053 


.4 


2.270 


.4 


2.498 


.4 


2.737 


.4 


2.986 


.4 


3.247 


.5 


2.074 


.5 


2.292 


.5 


2.521 


.5 


2.761 


.5 


3.012 


.5 


3.275 


.6 


2.095 


.6 


2.315 


.6 


2.545 


.6 


2.786 


.6 


3.038 


.6 


3.301 


.7 


2.117 


.7 


2.337 


.7 


2.568 


.7 


2.810 


.7 


3.064 


.7 


3.328 


.8 


2.138 


.8 


2.360 


.8 


2.592 


.8 


2.835 


.8 


3.089 


.8 


3.355 


.9 


2.160 


.9 


2.383 


.9 


2.616 


.9 


2.860 


.9 


3.115 


.9 


3.382 



101 



Ill 





Area, 
lare Feet. 












4^ 




-t-3 


iametei 
[nches. 


iameter 
[nches. 


Area, 
lare Fe< 


iameter 
[nches. 


Area, 
lare Fe( 


iametei 
[nches. 


Area. 

lare Fe( 


iameter 
[nches. 


Area, 
lare Fe( 








& 












a' 
OQ 


25.0 


3.409 


26.0 


3.687 


27.0 


3.976 


28.0 


4.276 


29.0 


4.487 


.1 


3.436 


.1 


3.715 


.1 


4.006 


.1 


4.307 


.1 


4.619 


.2 


3.464 


.2 


3.744 


.2 


4.035 


.2 


4.337 


.2 


4.650 


.3 


3.491 


.3 


3.773 


.3 


4.065 


.3 


4.368 


.3 


4.682 


.4 


3.519 


.4 


3.801 


.4 


4.095 


.4 


4.399 


.4 


4.714 


.5 


3.547 


.5 


3.830 


.5 


4.125 


.5 


4.430 


.5 


4.746 


.6 


3.574 


.6 


3.860 


.6 


4.155 


.6 


4.461 


.6 


4.779 


.7 


3.602 


.7 


3.888 


.7 


4.185 


.7 


4.493 


.7 


4.811 


.8 


3.631 


.8 


3.917 


.8 


4.215 


.8 


4.524 


.8 


4.844 


.9 


3.659 


.9 


3.947 


.9 


4.246 


.9 


4.555 


.9 


4.876 


30.0 


4.909 


31.0 


5.241 


32.0 


5.585 


33.0 


5.940 


34.0 


6.305 


35.0 


6.681 


36.0 


7.069 


37.0 


7.467 


38.0 


7.876 


39.0 


8.296 


40.0 


8.727 


41.0 


9.168 


42.0 


9.621 


43.0 


10.085 


44.0 


10.559 


45.0 


11,045 


46.0 


11.541 


47.0 


12.048 


48.0 


12.566 


49.0 


13.095 


50.0 


13.635 


51.0 


14.186 


52.0 


14.748 


53.0 


15.321 


54.0 


15.904 


55.0 


16.499 


56.0 


17.104 


57.0 


17.721 


58.0 


18.348 


59.0 


18.986 


60.0 


19.635 



















102 



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